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This document contains a review of biology topics, including important concepts regarding cell biology, DNA and RNA, and feedback mechanisms.

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**Unit 1** **1. What is Biology?\ **Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It explores how organisms are structured, how they function, and how they interact with their environment. It spans various topics such as genetics, evolution, ecology, and physiology to understand the...

**Unit 1** **1. What is Biology?\ **Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It explores how organisms are structured, how they function, and how they interact with their environment. It spans various topics such as genetics, evolution, ecology, and physiology to understand the fundamental processes that support life. **2. What are the 7 Characteristics That All Life Shares?\ **The seven characteristics shared by all living things are: - - - - - - - **3. What is a Biological Organization?\ **Biological organization refers to the hierarchical arrangement of life forms, from the smallest and simplest structures (atoms and molecules) to the most complex and interconnected ecosystems. It shows how smaller components come together to form larger, more complex systems, all of which work in concert to maintain life processes. **4. What are the 10 Levels of Biological Organization?\ **The ten levels of biological organization, in order from least to most complex, are: - - - - - - - - - - **5. What are the Three Main Components of Cell Theory?\ **The three main components of cell theory are: - - - **6. What are the 3 Explanations/Evidence for Cell Theory?\ **Three key pieces of evidence supporting cell theory are: - - - **7. Why is the Cell Considered the Smallest Unit of Life and Not the Organelles Within It?\ **The cell is considered the smallest unit of life because it is capable of performing all essential life functions independently, such as metabolism, energy production, and reproduction. Organelles, while crucial for cellular function, cannot carry out these tasks on their own. The cell as a whole is the basic unit that sustains life. **DNA and RNA** **1. What Does DNA Provide for Living Things?\ **DNA provides the instructions for how living things grow, develop, and function. It carries the information needed to build proteins, which are essential for life processes. DNA passes on traits from parents to offspring. **2. Describe and Compare the Structural Components of DNA and RNA.** - - **3. What Are the 5 Nitrogenous Bases?\ **The five nitrogenous bases are: - - - - - **4. Which Bases Are Found in DNA, and Which Are Found in RNA?** - - **5. Which Bases Are Larger, Double-Ringed "Purines" and Which Are Smaller Single-Ringed "Pyrimidines"?** - - **6. What Are the 3 Main Differences Between RNA and DNA?** 1. 2. 3. **Feedback Mechanisms** **1. What Is Feedback and Why Is It Important for Organisms?** Feedback is when a process in the body controls itself by adjusting its actions. It's important because it helps keep things balanced, so the body works properly. Without feedback, the body couldn't adjust to changes, like temperature or energy levels. **2. What Are Positive and Negative Feedback, and Examples?** Positive Feedback: This type of feedback makes a process happen faster or stronger. For example, when you get a cut, platelets in your blood gather to form a clot. This attracts more platelets until the cut is closed. Negative Feedback: This feedback slows down or stops a process to keep things balanced. For example, if you get too hot, your body sweats to cool down. If you get too cold, you shiver to warm up. **3. What Does \"Form Fits Function\" Mean and an Example?** \"Form fits function\" means that the shape or structure of something is perfect for its job. An example is a bird's beak. Different birds have different beaks that are shaped perfectly to help them eat their food, like sharp beaks for tearing meat or long beaks for getting nectar from flowers. **UNIT 2 : Digestion PART 1, Macromolecules PART 2** **PART 1** **Digestive parts and functions** **1. What Is the Primary Function of the Alimentary Canal, and Which 8 Organs Are Part of It?\ **The primary function of the alimentary canal is to process food, breaking it down, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste from the body. The 8 organs that make up the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. **2. Be Able to Label the 20 Parts of the Digestive System on a Diagram.\ **For this question, you would need a diagram of the digestive system. The 20 parts include the organs of the alimentary canal as well as accessory organs like the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. **3. Why Is It Necessary for the Body to Break Down Food?\ **The body needs to break down food into smaller molecules so that it can absorb and utilize nutrients, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, which are essential for energy, growth, and repair. **4. What Is the Difference Between Mechanical and Chemical Digestion?\ **Mechanical digestion involves the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces, such as when you chew or when your stomach churns food. On the other hand, chemical digestion involves the breakdown of food at the molecular level using enzymes and acids to convert food into nutrients that the body can absorb. **5. How Does Digestion Begin in the Mouth (Mechanical and Chemical)?\ **In the mouth, mechanical digestion begins when the teeth break food into smaller pieces by chewing. At the same time, chemical digestion starts as saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, containing the enzyme amylase, which begins to break down carbohydrates into simpler sugars. **6. What Type of Contractions Move Food Through the Alimentary Canal?\ **The movement of food through the alimentary canal is driven by **peristalsis**, which consists of rhythmic, wave-like contractions of smooth muscles that push food from one part of the digestive system to the next, ensuring that it moves along. **7. How Does Digestion Occur in the Stomach (Mechanical and Chemical)?\ **In the stomach, mechanical digestion occurs as the stomach muscles churn and mix food with digestive juices. Chemical digestion happens as gastric juices, including hydrochloric acid and the enzyme **pepsin**, break down proteins into smaller peptides. **8. How Does Digestion Occur in the Small Intestine (Mechanical and Chemical)?\ **In the small intestine, mechanical digestion happens as the food is mixed with digestive fluids through muscular movements. Chemical digestion is facilitated by enzymes released from the pancreas, such as **amylase** for carbohydrates, **lipase** for fats, and **nuclease** for nucleic acids, which help break down food into absorbable nutrients. **9. What Is the Role of Saliva in Digestion?\ **Saliva plays a crucial role in digestion by moistening food, making it easier to swallow. It also contains enzymes like **amylase**, which starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into simpler sugars, initiating the process of chemical digestion in the mouth. **10. Why Are Secretions Like Saliva, Bile, and Mucus Needed in the Digestive System?\ **Secretions such as saliva, bile, and mucus are essential for proper digestion. Saliva helps to moisten food and begin chemical digestion. Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, aids in the digestion and absorption of fats. Mucus protects the lining of the digestive tract from the harsh digestive enzymes and acids, preventing damage. **PART 2** **Macromolecules** **1. What Are the Four Main Classes of Biological Macromolecules Required by Living Organisms?\ **The four main classes of biological macromolecules required by living organisms are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules perform various essential functions, such as providing energy, supporting structure, storing genetic information, and assisting with biochemical reactions. **2. What Other 3 Elements Are Essential to All Life?\ **Besides carbon, the other three elements essential to all life are hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements are crucial because they form the basic components of water, organic molecules, and other important biological structures. **3. Where Is Nitrogen Found in a Protein and Nucleic Acid Molecule?\ **In proteins, nitrogen is found in the amino group (-NH₂) of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. In nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, nitrogen is found in the nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil in RNA), which form part of the structure of nucleotides. **4. Where Is Phosphorus Found in a Nucleic Acid? Where Is Phosphorus Found in Lipids?\ **In nucleic acids, phosphorus is found in the phosphate groups, which are part of the backbone of the DNA or RNA strands. In lipids, phosphorus is typically found in phospholipids, which are a major component of cell membranes. The phosphate group in phospholipids helps form the hydrophilic (water-attracting) head of the molecule. **5. What Are the Smaller Building Blocks Called? Match a Type of Monomer to Each of the 4 Macromolecules and Include the Correct Bond Type for Each One.\ **The smaller building blocks of macromolecules are called monomers. For each of the four macromolecules, the monomers are: - - - - **6. What Is Polymerization?\ **Polymerization is the process by which monomers are chemically bonded to form polymers (long chains of repeating units). This occurs when smaller molecules (monomers) link together through covalent bonds to create larger, more complex structures. **7. Explain the Process of Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation Reaction), and What Is Produced as a Byproduct in This Reaction?\ **Dehydration synthesis, also known as a condensation reaction, is the process by which two monomers are linked together to form a polymer, with the removal of a water molecule (H₂O) as a byproduct. This process occurs when a hydroxyl group (-OH) from one monomer and a hydrogen atom (H) from another monomer are removed, allowing the two molecules to bond. **8. Explain the Process of Hydrolysis, and How It Relates to the Breakdown of Polymers?\ **Hydrolysis is the process that breaks down polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule. During hydrolysis, the water molecule splits, and one part of the water (H or OH) is added to each of the monomers, breaking the covalent bond between them. This process is essentially the opposite of dehydration synthesis. **9. Explain How Hydrolysis Relates to Digestion?\ **Hydrolysis is crucial in digestion because it allows the breakdown of large food molecules (polymers) into smaller molecules (monomers) that the body can absorb. For example, enzymes in the digestive system catalyze the hydrolysis of carbohydrates into simple sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol, making these nutrients available for absorption and use by the body. **Carbohydrates** **1. What are 3 elements that carbohydrates are mainly composed of?\ **Carbohydrates are made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). **2. What is a monosaccharide, describe its structure and how the form fits function? Provide examples.\ **A monosaccharide is a simple sugar with a single molecule. Its structure allows it to be quickly used for energy. An example is glucose, which is used by cells for energy. **3. What is the difference between pentose and hexose sugars? Know what they look like based on the difference.\ **Pentose sugars have 5 carbon atoms, while hexose sugars have 6 carbon atoms. For example, ribose is pentose, and glucose is hexose. **4. What is the main function of monosaccharides in cells?\ **Monosaccharides provide energy to cells for various functions like growth and repair. **5. Monosaccharides can be linked together by hydrolysis synthesis reactions to form polysaccharides. What are the three key polysaccharides produced from glucose, and what is their function?\ **The three polysaccharides are starch (energy storage in plants), glycogen (energy storage in animals), and cellulose (structural support in plants). **6. How is cellulose structurally different from starch and glycogen?\ **Cellulose has straight chains, while starch and glycogen have branched or helical structures. This difference makes cellulose rigid and starch and glycogen more flexible. **7. What is the structural and functional role of cellulose in plants?\ **Cellulose gives plants structure by forming the cell wall, helping them stand upright and resist pressure. **8. How do starch and glycogen differ in terms of their structure and function?\ **Starch is used by plants for energy storage and has branched and unbranched forms. Glycogen is used by animals for energy storage and is more branched than starch for quicker energy release. **9. Why are glycogen and starch insoluble in water, and how does this affect their function?\ **Both are insoluble to prevent them from affecting the cell\'s water balance. This helps them store large amounts of energy without dissolving. **Lipids** **1. What two arrangements or structures do lipids form into?\ **Lipids can form into triglycerides (fats and oils) and phospholipids (main component of cell membranes). **2. Why are lipids considered hydrophobic?\ **Lipids are hydrophobic because they have long hydrocarbon chains that do not interact well with water, making them water-repellent. **3. What are the differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?\ **Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms and are solid at room temperature. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and are usually liquid at room temperature. **4. Explain the difference between cis and trans isomers of unsaturated fatty acids.\ **Cis fatty acids have hydrogen atoms on the same side of the double bond, causing a bend in the chain. Trans fatty acids have hydrogen atoms on opposite sides, creating a straight chain. **5. Be able to tell the difference of the types of lipids from their chemical structure images.\ **Fats and oils (triglycerides) have three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Phospholipids have two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and glycerol. Steroids have four carbon rings in their structure. **6. How do the properties of fats differ from oils, and what structural difference causes this?\ **Fats are solid at room temperature due to saturated fatty acids, while oils are liquid because of unsaturated fatty acids with double bonds causing bends in the structure. **7. What are the three main types of lipids, and how do they differ in structure and function?\ **The three main types are triglycerides (store energy), phospholipids (form cell membranes), and steroids (act as hormones and structural components). **8. What are amphipathic molecules, and why are phospholipids considered amphipathic?\ **Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-hating) parts. Phospholipids are amphipathic because their heads are hydrophilic, and their tails are hydrophobic. **9. How does the presence of double bonds in fatty acids affect their physical state at room temperature?\ **Double bonds create kinks in the fatty acid chain, preventing tight packing. This makes unsaturated fats (with double bonds) liquid at room temperature. **Proteins** **1. What monomers build a protein, and what is this monomer\'s structure?\ **Proteins are made from monomers called amino acids. Each amino acid has an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and an \"R\" group (side chain) that varies for each amino acid. **2. How many standard amino acids are there, and what distinguishes essential amino acids from non-essential amino acids?\ **There are 20 standard amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be made by the body and must come from food, while non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body. **3. Describe how peptide bonds are formed between amino acids.\ **A peptide bond is formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another, releasing a molecule of water (a dehydration reaction). **4. What is the difference between a dipeptide and a polypeptide?\ **A dipeptide consists of two amino acids linked by a peptide bond, while a polypeptide is a longer chain of many amino acids. **5. How does the sequence of amino acids affect protein structure?\ **The sequence of amino acids determines the protein\'s three-dimensional structure, which in turn dictates its function. A change in the sequence can lead to a nonfunctional or dysfunctional protein. **6. What is denaturation, and what factors can cause it?\ **Denaturation is the process where a protein loses its three-dimensional structure, often due to heat, pH changes, or chemicals. This causes the protein to lose its function. **7. What role do the \"R\" groups in amino acids play in protein function?\ **The \"R\" groups (side chains) determine the protein's specific properties, such as shape, charge, and ability to interact with other molecules. These properties affect the protein\'s function. **8. What are the 4 structures of proteins?\ **Proteins have four levels of structure: - - - - **Nucleic Acids** - **Metabolism / Enzymes** **1. What protein will control each step of these pathways?\ **The proteins that control each step of metabolic pathways are called **enzymes**. Enzymes act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in the body without being consumed in the process. **2. What is the significance of enzymes when it comes to activation energy?\ **Enzymes lower the **activation energy** (EA) required for a reaction to begin. By reducing this energy barrier, enzymes allow reactions to occur more quickly and efficiently at the normal body temperature, making biochemical processes happen at a faster rate. **3. What is a catalyst?\ **A **catalyst** is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up or permanently altered in the process. In biological systems, enzymes act as catalysts. **4. Describe the basic structure of an enzyme.\ **An enzyme is typically made up of a long chain of amino acids, folded into a specific three-dimensional shape. The active site, a region on the enzyme, is where the substrate (reactant) binds, facilitating the chemical reaction. **5. What is the Lock-and-Key Model, and how does it describe enzyme-substrate interactions?\ **The **Lock-and-Key Model** describes enzyme-substrate interactions by comparing the enzyme's active site to a lock and the substrate to a key. The key (substrate) fits perfectly into the lock (enzyme), allowing the enzyme to catalyze the reaction. **6. Explain the Induced Fit Model of enzyme function.\ **The **Induced Fit Model** suggests that when the substrate binds to the enzyme's active site, the enzyme undergoes a conformational change to better fit the substrate. This model emphasizes flexibility and interaction between the enzyme and substrate. **7. What factors can affect enzyme activity, and how do they impact enzyme function?\ **Several factors can affect enzyme activity, including temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, and substrate concentration. - - - - **8. Describe the relationship between enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the effects they have on the reaction rate.** - - **9. What is competitive inhibition, and how does it affect enzyme activity?\ Competitive inhibition** occurs when a molecule similar to the substrate binds to the enzyme's active site, blocking the actual substrate from binding. This reduces the enzyme\'s activity, as the inhibitor competes with the substrate. **10. Explain non-competitive inhibition and how it differs from competitive inhibition.\ Non-competitive inhibition** occurs when an inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site on the enzyme. This causes a change in the enzyme's shape, preventing the substrate from binding effectively. Unlike competitive inhibition, the inhibitor does not compete directly with the substrate for the active site. **Water** **1. Explain the difference between polar covalent bonds and nonpolar covalent bonds.\ **In **polar covalent bonds**, electrons are shared unevenly between two atoms because one atom is more electronegative than the other, creating a partial positive charge on one end and a partial negative charge on the other. In **nonpolar covalent bonds**, electrons are shared equally because the atoms involved have similar electronegativities, so there is no charge separation. **2. What role do hydrogen bonds play in water\'s unique properties, and how do these properties support life?\ **Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between the partially positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the partially negative oxygen atom of another. These bonds are responsible for many of water's unique properties, including its high heat capacity, surface tension, and ability to dissolve many substances. These properties help regulate temperature, facilitate chemical reactions, and provide a medium for transporting nutrients in living organisms. **3. Compare the behavior of hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules.\ Hydrophilic molecules** are \"water-loving\" and can interact with water molecules through hydrogen bonding or polarity, making them soluble in water. Examples include salts, sugars, and proteins. **Hydrophobic molecules** are \"water-fearing\" and tend to repel water, not dissolving in it. These molecules are nonpolar and include oils, fats, and some gases. **4. What is the significance of capillary action in plants, and how does the combination of cohesion and adhesion in water molecules facilitate this process?\ Capillary action** is the movement of water up narrow tubes, such as plant roots and stems. **Cohesion** (the attraction between water molecules) and **adhesion** (the attraction between water molecules and the walls of plant vessels) work together to pull water upward against gravity. This helps transport water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves of plants. **5. Why is water\'s high heat capacity and high heat of vaporization beneficial to organisms?\ **Water\'s high heat capacity means it can absorb or release a large amount of heat without significantly changing its temperature. This helps maintain stable internal temperatures in organisms. Its high heat of vaporization means that it requires a lot of energy to convert water from liquid to gas, which allows organisms to cool down through evaporation (e.g., sweating) and helps regulate body temperature. **6. Give 3 examples of molecules that are hydrophilic, and 3 examples of molecules that are hydrophobic.\ Hydrophilic molecules**: - - - - - - **7. What is surface tension? Provide an example.\ Surface tension** is the tendency of liquid surfaces to resist external force, caused by cohesive forces between molecules. For example, water droplets form spherical shapes because the water molecules at the surface stick together and minimize surface area, creating tension. This property allows small insects like water striders to walk on water. **8. Discuss how the differential solubilities of molecules in water impact their transport in biological systems.\ **In biological systems, molecules that are **hydrophilic** (like glucose and ions) can easily dissolve in water and be transported through the bloodstream or within cells. On the other hand, **hydrophobic** molecules (like lipids) are not soluble in water and require transport proteins or packaging in vesicles to move through aqueous environments. This difference in solubility influences how substances are absorbed, transported, and utilized by organisms. For instance, glucose dissolves in water and can be easily transported in the bloodstream, whereas fats are transported in lipoproteins, which are structures that help carry hydrophobic molecules in the bloodstream. **Unit 3 : Circulatory system** **Circulatory System Components** 1. 2. **Blood Vessels\ **3. **What are the three main types of blood vessels and their functions?\ **The three main types of blood vessels are **arteries** (carry oxygenated blood away from the heart), **veins** (carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart), and **capillaries** (where the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients happens). 4. 5. 6. **Double Circulation\ **7. **What is double circulation, and why is it important?\ Double circulation** means that blood flows through the heart twice in one complete cycle. One flow goes to the lungs (pulmonary circulation) to get oxygen, and the other goes to the body (systemic circulation) to deliver oxygen. This is important because it keeps oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate, ensuring that the body receives oxygen more efficiently. 8. **Blood Composition\ **9. **Which blood vessel carries oxygenated blood to body tissues, and which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs?\ **The **arteries** carry oxygenated blood to body tissues, while the **pulmonary artery** carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. 10. 11. **The Heart and Blood Flow** **Four Chambers of the Heart** 1. - - - - **Path Blood Takes from the Body to the Lungs\ **2. **Describe the path blood takes as it flows from the body, through the heart, and to the lungs.\ **Blood flows from the body into the **superior and inferior vena cava**, which empty into the **right atrium**. From there, it moves to the **right ventricle**, which pumps it through the **pulmonary artery** to the lungs for oxygenation. **Role of the Sinoatrial (SA) Node\ **3. **What is the role of the sinoatrial (SA) node in the heart?\ **The **SA node**, located in the right atrium, is the heart\'s natural pacemaker. It generates electrical impulses that initiate the heartbeat, causing the atria to contract and pump blood into the ventricles. **Function of the Atrioventricular (AV) Node\ **4. **What is the function of the atrioventricular (AV) node?\ **The **AV node** is located between the atria and ventricles. It delays the electrical signal from the SA node to allow the ventricles time to fill with blood before they contract and pump blood to the lungs and the body. **Cardiac Cycle and Heartbeat** 1. - - **Blood Typing and Compatibility\ 2. What are the two main systems for classifying blood types?\ **The two main systems for classifying blood types are: - - 3. 4. 5. **Blood Type Compatibility\ 6. If a person has type AB- blood, what antigens and antibodies would they have?\ A person with AB- blood has:** - - - 7. 8. - **Blood Components and Functions** 1. - - - 2. 3. 4. 5. **Unit 4: Cells and Organelles** **Organelles** 1. - 2. - - 3. - 4. - 5. - - 6. - 7. - 8. - **Interaction of Subcellular Components** 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - **Structure and Function of Cell Membranes** 1. - 2. - 3. - 4. - **Membrane Permeability and Cell Walls** 5. - 6. - 7. - 8. - **Identify the following as (a) polar or (b) nonpolar:** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. **Surface Area-to-Volume Ratios** 1. - 2. - - - - - 3. - - - - **Membrane Transport** 1. - - 2. - - - 3. - 4. - 5. - - 6. - 7. - 8. - - - 9. - **Tonicity and Osmoregulation** 1. - 2. **Create a chart that defines hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic in terms of solute concentration. Describe what would happen to a plant and animal cell if placed in each of these solutions.** **Solution Type** **Solute Concentration** **Effect on Animal Cell** **Effect on Plant Cell** ------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------- Hypertonic Higher outside the cell Cell shrinks (crenation) Cell membrane pulls away from cell wall (plasmolysis) Isotonic Equal solute concentration inside and outside No change (normal) No change (flaccid) Hypotonic Lower outside the cell Cell swells and may burst (lysis) Cell becomes turgid (normal state) 3. - 4. **Compartmentalization and Endosymbiotic Theory** 1. - 2. - 3. - - 4. - 5. - - - - - **Unit 5: Role of Energy in Living Organisms** 1. - **Free Energy and Reaction Spontaneity** 2. - 3. - - 4. - - **ATP: The Energy Currency of the Cell** 5. - 6. - 7. - **Photosynthesis and Energy Capture** 8. - 9. - 10. - 11. - **Light Reactions** 12. - - 13. - - - 14. - **Other Questions** 15. - 16. - **Calvin Cycle** 1. - 2. - - - 3. - - - - - - - - - - **Cellular Respiration and Energy Use** 4. - 5. - - - - 6. - - - - - - - - - 7. - 8. - 9. - - 10. - 11. - - - - - - 12. -

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