PS 101 Review Questions for Exam 3 PDF

**PS 101 Review Questions for Exam 3** Chapters 9, 10, 12, &14 Format: - - - - Be prepared to answer the following questions about Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: - - Trust v. Mistrust (**birth to age 1**): if basic needs are met the child will develop ***a sen...

**PS 101 Review Questions for Exam 3** Chapters 9, 10, 12, &14 Format: - - - - Be prepared to answer the following questions about Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development: - - Trust v. Mistrust (**birth to age 1**): if basic needs are met the child will develop ***a sense of trust*** in the social world, if basic needs are not met the child will be ***in crisis***. TRUST - Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (**1 to 3 years**)Developing a sense of ***independence in tasks.*** INDEPENDENCE - - Initiative v. Guilt (**3 to 6 years**): ***taking Initiative on activities***; may develop ***guilt when unsuccessful*** or their ***boundaries are overstepped.*** OPINIONATED RESPONSE - ***experimenting with identities***, developing a sense of roles that fit the individual. IDENTITY - establishing intimacy (romantic, friendships). RELATIONSHIPS - ***For each "stage" there is an obstacle that must be addressed.*** **Successfully dealing with the obstacle** sets the person up for healthy ongoing development. Being unsuccessful in the stage will influence future stages (person can be "stuck"). \[If an individual is unsuccessful in one stage, that can defer the next stages from being addressed, setting back the individual\'s development.\] Be prepared to answer the following questions about Jean Piaget's cognitive theory of development: ***Schema***: a working mental understanding of a collection of concepts. ***Assimilation***: fitting a new example into an existing concept or schema. ***Accommodation***: adjusting a schema with evidence that a new example does not fit. - ***Assimilation*** is when ***they take in information*** that is ***comparable*** to ***what they already know***. Example: The 2 year old learned ***SCHEMA*** for dogs. Why?: Family has a pet dog.(*real world relation*). The 2 year old reads a picture book and sees a similar image to his pet. The 2 year old Tells mother, "look,mommy, dog!" The 2 year old ***ASSIMILATED*** that image into a schema for dogs. Basic Schema for this example: Image- Animal with four legs and fur. Relates to pet dog\'s features. The 2 year old learns the image of that animal and applies it to future observations. - ***Accommodation*** describes when they ***change their schemata*** based on ***[NEW]*** information. This process ***continues*** as children ***interact with their environment.*** Example: The 2 year old has already stored the information for the schema for the related image of "dog". The 2 year old now Sees all four-legged, fur having animals as dogs. The 2 year old sees a sheep and calls it a dog. Mother corrects him, explaining the differences between the two animals. The 2 year old now ***ACCOMMODATES*** (Adapts schema to newer information)images of four-legged fur having animals and differentiates them, according to the information he receives. How do children in the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) learn about the world? ***The Sensorimotor stage*** is when children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Example- Children may put something in their mouth to see if it is edible When they learn to grasp,Children may grasp things and shake them to see if they make noise. - ***Object permanence***: the infant will be able to hold a mental image of an object that can no longer be perceived. Example- **Infant with object permanence**- Toy is hidden under blanket, child reaches for toy whilst underneath blanket, child knows it still exist. **Infant without object permanence**- Toy is hidden under blanket, child will think that toy "disappeared". **Infant with object permanence**- Parents hide faces during a game of peekaboo, the child will not have a perceived reaction, the child knows it\'s parents are still there. **Infant without object permanence**- Parents hide faces during a game of peekaboo, the child may get startled or start to cry, the child thinks that its parents are gone. - ***Stranger anxiety***: the child is unable to assimilate a stranger into an existing schema, can't predict the person's behavior, fear response is likely. AGE - BETWEEN 5 AND 8 MONTHS OLD.(Same developing age as object permanence.) - - Piaget called the learning process stage from age 2 to 6 the ***preoperational stage*** because this is the stage where children can associate symbols to represent words, pictures,and ideas. **Example**- Little boy may pick up a stick and pretend it\'s a sword. Little boy may stick arms up and pretend to be an airplane. Called the ***Preoperational Stage*** due to the fact that children can understand the usage of language, but ***do NOT*** ***understand*** adult logic or manipulating mental information. **EXAMPLE**- The video shows when the little boy thought that he got more Graham crackers than the lady sitting across from him, even though it was the same cracker portion cut into pieces. He thought he got more pieces because there were multiple pieces of the cracker, he couldn\'t mentally process that it was the same portion as the whole cracker. - ***Conservation***: understanding that an object maintains the same essence even if aspects of the appearance change, As long as nothing is removed or added.- children in the preoperational stage ***do NOT understand*** conservation. AGE -7 TO 11 YEARS OLD - ***Concrete operational stage*** (ages **7 to 11**): understanding concrete events and analogies; logic; arithmetical operations. Concrete is used by Piaget , meaning real world events happening in relation to the child. - - ***Formal operational stage*** (ages ***12 and older \[adolescence\]***): abstract reasoning.(coming straight from memory, can connect thinking to hypothetical situations.) ***Postformal thinker***: an individual who is able to ***think in flexible ways,*** apply ***logic,*** accept ***moral*** and ***intellectual complexities, problem solving*** by ***considering multiple perspectives.*** Make an argument that empirical evidence about development suggests a more continuous process than a stage-based (or discontinuous) process. An ***empirical process*** of evidence would be a more ***continuous*** process of information about development than **stage based reasoning** because stage based process is hypothetical theory and empirical evidence is based on data collection from real experiments. The key difference is ***that a stage-based process is conceptual and theoretical, while an empirical process is data-driven and focused on testing those concepts through real-world evidence.*** Are stage-based theories of development still valuable even though more recent empirical evidence suggests that development is more continuous than based on discontinuous stages? Stage based theories act as a basis of information that empirical processing can use to further their experimentation and compare their conclusions to. Distinguish intrinsic motivation from extrinsic motivation. ***Intrinsic motivation***: interest in an activity for the *sake of the activity.* ***Extrinsic motivation***: interest in activity for the *sake of earning some other reward (not inherent in the activity*) or *avoiding a punishment*. Be prepared to explain drive theory and homeostasis. ***Homeostasis***: the human body seeks balance, equilibrium, and stability; homeostasis is balance equilibrium for physiological and psychological states. ***Drive theory***: explanation focused on the idea that beings are born with certain psychological needs and that the being will feel an unpleasant state of tension when these needs are not satisfied. Be prepared to describe Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and how it relates to the concept of self-efficacy. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory that individuals must fulfill more basic needs in order to focus on higher-level needs (***for example, a person struggling with hunger will be forced to fulfill that need and may not be able to focus on building healthy relationships).*** ***Self-efficacy***: confidence in one's ability to control motivations, behavior, performance, and the social environment. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, self-efficacy is a higher-level need that one can only focus on if ***more basic needs are being met.*** What is conformity? Is conformity inherently bad? Describe a situation in which conformity would be helpful. Conformity What is a social norm? How do members of a group react when someone initially breaks a social norm? How do members of a group react when someone consistently breaks a social norm? ***Social Norm***: an expectation that is deeply held in a given group. A new person to a group who breaks the norm will ***often not be liked*** unless the person ***changes their behavior*** and ***starts to go along with the group***, the other group members will often spend more time talking to the deviant to try to get them to go along with the group. Someone who consistently breaks the norm will be devalued by the group (not liked) and will be assigned the worst tasks if the group is an ongoing work group. Solomon\'s Asch\'s (1951,1956)on judging the length of lines What does Solomon Asch's conformity study on judging the length of lines reveal about the value of having an ally when resisting normative pressure to conform to a wrong answer? (This is the study in which a unanimous majority sometimes gave a wrong answer or at least one of the confederates---people who appeared to be study participants, but who were secretly following a script in cahoots with the researcher---gave a different answer than the majority.) In Stanley Milgram's obedience to authority ("shock") studies, the power of the social situation prompted participants to follow the orders of an experimenter, even though they thought they were causing pain to another person. In the most famous version of the study, the person who was apparently being shocked could be heard through the wall, and 62% of participants kept pressing the levers on the "shock generator" even after the person complained that his heart was bothering him. When the "victim" was in the same room as the participant, the rate of compliance with the experimenter's demands was lower. When two experimenters disagreed on whether to continue, no one continued! What do these studies tell us about the power of the social situation? If you wanted to resist a powerful authority figure who you disagree with, what would be the value of allying with another authority figure? When two authoritative figures disagreed on whether to continue after the "learner" complained that his heart was bothering him, no participants continued much further. Real-life application- seeking an ally in an authority figure who might help you face another authority figure. The emotional distance of the victim \[learner\] influences the rate of compliance to 450 volts. When the victim can be heard expressing pain through the wall, compliance is higher than when the victim is in the same room acting out being in pain or even closer in which the real participant had to force the victim's hand to touch a supposed "shock" plate. Be prepared to explain why having the "victim" closer to the participant reduced the rate of compliance with the demands of the experimenter in Stanley Milgram's obedience to authority ("shock") studies? After reading the description of the Stanford Prison Experiment in the textbook (also feel welcome to look at this webpage as a resource: [[https://www.prisonexp.org/]](https://www.prisonexp.org/)), be prepared to critique the ethics of this study. Specifically, focus on whether the anticipated value of the study outweighs the risk of harm to the participants. Be prepared to explain prejudice as emotion, stereotyping as cognition, and discrimination as behavior. ***Prejudice*** is an ***emotional reaction*** that is negative (disliking) toward a group of an individual based on group membership ***Stereotyping*** Is ***cognition*** --- Positive or negative beliefs about a group or individuals ***based on group membership***. ***Discrimination*** is ***behavior*** that harms a group or individuals based on group membership. How can in-group bias function as unintentional discrimination against an out-group? In group: a group that is important to the individual with which the individual identifies Out group: a group the individual does not identify with and would not want to identify with -A GROUP ABOUT WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL WOULD SAY "THEY" OR "THEM" (OR "THOSE PEOPLE") -THE INDIVIDUAL DOES NOT SEEK TO BELONG OR TO BE AN ALLY. INGROUP BIAS : A DESIRE TO HELP ONE\'S INGROUP. INGROUP BIAS: CAN CAUSE UNINTENTIONAL DISCRIMINATION AGAINST AN OUT-GROUP. Be prepared to distinguish hostile aggression and instrumental aggression. Be prepared to identify each type of aggression or provide an example of each type. Hostile aggression: intention to harm based on intrinsic motivation in harming. Instrumental aggression: intention to harm based on extrinsic motivation to achieve some other goal. Example: Seeking popularity by gossiping about a person who was harmed by the gossip. Example for hostile aggression: harming a person out of frustration with a goal focused on doing harm. What is stress? What is a stressor? Stress: perceiving and responding to events that an individual perceives as overwhelming or threatening to well-being. Stressors: demanding or threatening events. Example: Stressor is lack of time, planning time management Making a plan with a friend for how to handle a situation that is stressful. Emotion-focused coping: ~~What is the relationship between long-term stress and physical health (such as cardiovascular disease and asthma)?~~ ~~What is the effect of long-term stress on the immune system?~~ ~~What does the field of health psychology study?~~ ~~What are the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome? Be able to identify an example of alarm reaction, of the stage of resistance, and of the stage of exhaustion. Be prepared to describe how each stage relates to the ability to handle stress.~~ ~~Compare and contrast problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping.~~