Exam 3 Review PDF

[Chapter 9\ ]What are mental concepts and why are they important?mental groups of similar things the are important cuz simplify thinking, and need for communication\ What are prototypes and how do they affect categorization?a metal image or "best example" of a category. Helps to simply process, when...

[Chapter 9\ ]What are mental concepts and why are they important?mental groups of similar things the are important cuz simplify thinking, and need for communication\ What are prototypes and how do they affect categorization?a metal image or "best example" of a category. Helps to simply process, when something closely matches our prototype of a concept, we more readily recognize it as an example of the concept\ What are the four problem-solving methods we use? Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, insight\ What are some obstacles to problem-solving?\ How do economists and psychologists understand human decision making in different ways? Economists take a rational approach (what should people do?) Psychologists take a descriptive approach ( what do people actually do?)\ What are examples of ways we use and misuse heuristics? Use: decision making ( choosing a cereal brand) misuse: stereotypes, wrong impressions, quick but can be error prone.\ What are the representativeness and the availability heuristics? Be able to give examples. Representativeness: Judging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it represents the prototype. Availability: basing judgements based on how easily something can be brought to mind. (how cognitively available it is)\ How can framing affect decision-making? When are we more likely to make riskier choices?more likely to take risks when framed as loses\ What are the five components of thinking creatively?1. Expertise (well developed knowledge) 2. Imaginative thinking skills ( ability to see things in a novel way, recognize patterns, and make connections) 3. Aventersome, determined personality (seek new experiences) 4. Intrinsic motivation (driven by interest, and satisfaction, (internal)) 5. A creative environment ( sparks ideas)\ What are the three building blocks of all languages? 1. Phonemes ( smallest distinctive sound in a unit of language.) 2. morphonemes( smallest language unit that carries meaning ex: unhappiness) 3. grammar (languages set of rules that enable people to communicate.)\ How does language develop in humans?1.babbiling stage (\~4 months) 2.one word stage (\~1 year) 3.two word stage (\~2 years) 4. Longer phases\ What 3 stages of language development did we discuss?\ What do we mean when we talk about a critical period of language? Manguage must be learned by a certain age\ What is language determinism/language relativism?language indicates thinking, we all sense the same things but we perceive them differently based on language (time and color)\ How does language impact thinking and thinking impact language?language: the way we categorize concepts. categorization: the way we see the world. The way we see the world: language.\ What is aphasia? How do Broca's vs. Wernicke's area affect language?trouble speaking, understanding speech or writing as a result of damage to parts of the brain that processes understanding and language. [Chapter 11\ ]What is motivation? Is it the need or desire that energizes and directs behavior towards a goal.\ How does the modern evolutionary theory explain motivation?and older perspective focused on instincts\ What is drive-reduction theory? What is a need, what is a drive?a physiological need creates an aroused tension state ( a drive) the motivated behaviors for the organism to satisfied that need and eliminate that tension ( need: food, water Drive: hunger, thirst)\ According to this theory, what is the primary driver of motivation and behavior?\ What is homeostasis?our bodies\' natural tendency to maintain a steady/stable internal state.\ Hunger- what is hunger and how are needs and incentives related to it?a physiological and psychological drive motivating eating behaviors. Needs: physiological drive to replenish energy signaled by ques like stomach growling incentives: external factors like smell or sight of applying food motivate eating even beyond basic needs.\ What structure in the brain is related to hunger?hypothalamus\ Give examples of internal and external cues to hunger internal ques: stomach growls, glucose drops. external : seeing advertisements of crumbled cookies → crave sweets, time of day.\ How does culture impact eating and taste preferences? Growing in different cultures: more or less spicy ect.\ What is arousal theory?focuses on on finding the right levels of stimulation\ How is it different from drive-reduction theory?we want optimum level of arousal not just to eliminate it\ What is Maslow's hierarchy of motives?all motives are not equal, some goals/ motives are prioritized\ What is the implication of this hierarchy regarding how we choose what goals to pursue? Other goals, cultural differences.\ What is the difference between self-actualization and self-transcendence? self - actualization: seeking to realize one\'s potential self-transcendence: achieved goals→ seeking a higher purpose beyond the self ( sometimes spiritual)\ What is the need to belong? The motivation to affiliate with others ( want to be accepted, hate being excluded)\ What are some benefits of this motivation? Evolutionary advantages like social bonds, coorporation, successful group life, feelings of love and neural reward system\ How does social media use satisfy (or even undermine) this motivation? It often underestimates the need to belong\ What does social exclusion feel like? What is an example of social exclusion? It feels like pain to the brain,\ What is sexual motivation?\ What are the three spiritual purposes of sexual motivation?\ What is the need for achievement?The desire for significant accomplishment, mastering skills and ideas, or attaining high standards\ How do grit and self-control affect people's ability to achieve this need?the passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal, regulating behavior in the face of temptations Promotes delaying gratification for skill development\ Be able to define and give examples of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic in internal: express creativity, enjoy the experience ect. Extrinsic is external: impress others and get good grades. Chapter 13\ What is social psychology? The branch of Psychology that focuses on social interactions Focuses on the situation They study the social influences that explain why the same person acts differently in different situations\ What are attributions and what is the fundamental attribution error?Attribution theory: we can attribute the behavior to the person's stable, enduring traits, or we can attribute it to the situation Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situation What is social facilitation?The phenomena of improved performance on simple tasks, and reduced performance on difficult tasks when in the presence of others\ When does the presence of other people improve or hurt performance? Why?Simple tasks benefit from the presence of people. Difficult tasks worsen. This is because being around people strengthens our most likely response. When we are observed, our emotions rise which amplifies our reactions.\ What is social loafing and why does it happen?Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Cause: Acting as part of a group & feel less accountable\ What is the difference between individual and social identity?Individual identity: who we define ourselves as Social identity: who we define ourselves as within a group or community setting\ What is ingroup, outgroup, and ingroup bias? Perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than members of our group\ What is cognitive dissonance theory? Be able to give examples. It is the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent Examples: Attitudes and actions clash → we change our attitude\ What is the peripheral and central route to persuasion?\ What were the findings of Asch's conformity experiments?Conform to group pressure and deny evidence of their own senses\ What were the findings of Milgram's obedience study?People obey orders even if it may inflict harm Obedience is high when researcher (authority figure) is near the subject Victim is depersonalized (can't see their face)\ What is conformity and how does it relate to normative and informational social influence?\ What are the three components of prejudice?1. Affective (e.g. prejudice emotion: envy, fear) 2. Behavior (e.g. discrimination)3.Cognitive (e.g. stereotypes, heuristics, confirmation bias, belief perseverance) What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?Perception that members of an outgroup are more similar to each other than members of our group\ Why might explicit measures of prejudicial attitudes no longer be appropriate?Explicit Measure: Self-report Explicit bias was expressed Being "racist" has been stigmatized (people will lie on self-report)\ What are the Shooter Bias Studies? What were the main findings?Participants see a series of pictures and must make the judgement to either 'shoot' or 'not shoot'. Cultural biases influence the results Participants shot black guy holding a wallet faster than they shot a white guy holding a gun\ What are examples of social and cognitive roots of prejudice?social: Examples: people can learn prejudices through socialization (interacting with others) = absorb attitudes and beliefs from those around them preudeice: Examples: confirmation bias = people seek information that confirms their existing beliefs and attitudes\ Be able to apply the mere exposure effect.\ What is altruism? The selfless concern or behavior for the well-being and welfare of others, often at the cost of oneself\ What is the bystander effect? Why does it happen and what are some strategies to reduce it?What is the bystander effect? The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present