Introduction to Religion PDF

Introduction to Religion (Kirkland) Substantive Definition: “What religion is.” Religion is the worship of sacred being It teaches doctrines and moral codes It is about formal ceremonies and rituals Functional Definition: “What...

Introduction to Religion (Kirkland) Substantive Definition: “What religion is.” Religion is the worship of sacred being It teaches doctrines and moral codes It is about formal ceremonies and rituals Functional Definition: “What religion does.” Religion unites the people in a community together. It regulates people’s moral life and actions. It provides acceptable cultural behaviors of the members of the society. Emile Durkheim “A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things–beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them”. (Russell) Consolatory Definition: Religion satisfies our philosophical and psychological longing for the explanations regarding our lives and the existence of the universe. Premise: We encounter difficulties in life.  Uncontrollable events, sickness and death, uncertainty, injustice, scarcity or deprivation, hostility of others. “Religion is humanity’s means of coping with basic problems of human existence.” Religions brings out the ultimate meaning of life experiences; it provides models and guideposts for the meaningful integration of all one’s experiences. It not only allows the person to understand what phenomena and events mean singly; but it also shows him how they fit together into a single homogenous reality. It thus provides a comprehensive worldview, and means of orienting one’s life in all its facets. If dissected, this comprehensive system might be seen to consist of a conceptual complex and a set of values pertaining to various aspects of life.” BASIC THEORIES THEISM is a theory which affirms the ANIMISM existence of God. God resides in natural or inanimate ATHEISM objects such as stones, trees or rivers. denies God’s existence. AGNOSTICISM MONOTHEISM God cannot be known by human reason; whatever we claim to know theorizes that there is only one God. about God cannot be certain and POLYTHEISM always subjected to doubt. says that there are many gods. FIDEISM PANTHEISM maintains that God can only be asserts that everything is God. known by faith. BASIC TERMS CULT An underground, small, organized religion not socially acceptable and with unconventional and radical beliefs and teachings. SECT A religion with unpopular and usually fundamentalist doctrines formed by a minor group of people who separated themselves from one major religious group. DENOMINATION A mainstream religion with big membership but not official or state sponsored. It is one religion among many. (Protestant: Presbyterian, Episcopal, Lutheran, Baptist, Methodist) ECCLESIA Originally, an assembly of the citizens of the Greek city-states. Now, a religion where most or all members of the society belong; it has a national boundary and officially connected with the state. Nature of Religious Experience and Spirituality Categories of Religious Experiences Experience is a “conscious mental event” Religious experience is “a personal experience of God” Categories: Public: phenomenon encountered by many people Private: exclusive to an individual and cannot be shared with others Specific Categories of Religious Experiences 1. An ordinary public experience with a divine origin  Waking up every morning may be ordinary but for a religious individual- it could be a grace and miracle An astronomer- starry sky as ordinary Religious- God's presence is felt with his littleness and the vastness of space. A gardener- a sprouting plant as a product of work Religious person, behind it is the divine power. 2. A public experience which is not ordinary, in the rational or scientific sense, because it violates the physical and natural laws Miracles like healing of an incurable disease, or water turning into wine. 3. Divinely inspired private experience, describable through ordinary, sensory language Moses seeing the burning bush Annunciation of Mary Mohammad’s vision of an angel dictating to him the Qur’an 4. Indescribable private experience, expressed negatively and with metaphors. Mystical experiences “not like any others” “like beings tossed into the abyss” “the soul abandoning itself fully into the arms of God” (Therese of Avila) 5. A constant and regular feeling of the existence of a divinity  A monk meditating in yoga position, so relaxed and unmoved, like being engulfed by the ultimate reality. After meditating under the fig tree, Gautama transformed into the Buddha; so serene and calm, always in the state of enlightenment. Varieties of Religious Experiences Religion is “the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine.” 1. Conversion: Sudden and dramatic transformation Inner struggle and a new sense of purpose. 2. Saintliness: Exceptional moral and spiritual qualities Selflessness, compassion, and inner peace. 3. Mysticism: Direct encounters with the divine Common features of mystical experiences: Ineffability (Impossible to express in words) Noetic quality (Providing deep knowledge) Transiency (Temporary) Passivity (Uncontrolled by the individual).  1. Sick-Soul vs. Healthy-Minded “Sick soul" grapples with sin, guilt, and suffering, seeking solace in the divine. The "healthy-minded" individual emphasizes optimism, gratitude, and finding meaning in everyday life. 2. Varieties of Prayer Petitionary prayer (seeking specific assistance) Contemplative prayer (focused on inner reflection) Intercessory prayer (praying for others). 3. Automatisms: Involuntary behaviors Glossolalia (speaking in tongues) Automatic writing The Truth-Value of Religious Experience Truth of religion is not intellectual, nor it is social and institutional. Religious truth is profoundly personal, based on a person’s experience. Starts with a feeling of uneasiness from being wrong or a difficulty in life Affirming the truth of a Being with sacred manifestation and power who could solve the problem The Will to Believe (Video) An essay in justification of faith A defense of our right to adopt a believing attitude in religious matters 1. Faith can be rational Even without proof, faith can be valid when options lack clear evidence. 2. Religious belief is justified Emotions, personal needs, and experiences contribute to our beliefs, not just logic and evidence. 3. Choosing a belief can lead to action Acting on a belief can bring new experiences that confirm or challenge it. 4. Responsibility While defending the right to believe, James emphasizes personal responsibility and open-mindedness to new evidence. Pragmatic Truth and Value of Religious Belief Pragmatism: A New Word for an Old Way of Thinking, James (1907) Bible: “You shall know them by their fruits.” Pragmatic theory and value of truth: “truth happens to an idea”. An idea is first acted out, then the result determines the truth. There is a value from the act of believing in something that has not beenn proven true Religious beliefs are usually beyond rational justification and scientific validation. Religious beliefs have a practical value to human life. Idea becomes true by the result of doing it. Belief is an idea which we are prepared to act. Truth is a belief proven useful to us as believers.  Beliefs in religious matters are proven true by first putting them into practice Then the result determines their truth. Example: Belief in god and eternal salvation Practice by doing good Result - world peace, personal contentment or deeper understanding of human suffering. The proof that God exist and there is eternal salvation comes with the result of beliefs put into practice. Religious Traditions of the World HINDUISM Ohm - The sacred sound of the universe  - Symbolizes the three states of consciousness: the waking (bottom curve), the dream (middle curve) and the deep (upper curve) - 4,500 BCE, Indus Valley (Now Northwest India and Pakistan) - Polytheistic Religion: Supreme Beings: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva - Sacred Writings: Vedas and Upanishads BRAHMAN - Ultimate reality, the source and the goal of all existence. - A general term for the Supreme Reality or 'God' - The idea of the "Divine" is richly manifested in the multiplicity of Hindu gods and goddesses BRAHMA - The creator of the universe and of all beings. - Not as popular as Vishnu and Shiva. It is hard to find a temple dedicated to Brahma. SHIVA – (DESTROYER?) - Ascetic god in yogic meditation in the Himalayas, storing up his energy to refresh the world periodically. - DISSOLVES, THEN RECREATES A DYSFUNCTIONAL UNIVERSE VISHNU (Protector/Preserver) - The great heavenly king who descends to the world from time to time in various forms (avatars) to maintain cosmic stability. ASCETICISM - In the midst of a busy city which caters to the worldly desires with markets, cinemas, shops, and so on, the ascetics look like a traveller from another world. - Holy men or women sitting in meditation around the steps of Ganges river  - Wearing a minimum of clothes or naked. - Their bodies are dirty with ashes, sometimes from the cremation grounds. - Hair is long and untidy, or their heads may be shaven indicating utter neglect of bodily appearance. - Their only possessions are a water pot and a staff (REMINDER) IMPORTANCE OF WORLD RENUNCIATION IN HINDU TRADITION Basic Beliefs: Karma (law of cause and effect) Samsara (cycle of birth, death and rebirth—reincarnation) Dharma (ethics/duties) Artha (prosperity/work) Kama (desires/passion) Moksha (spiritual release) BASIC CONCEPTS IN HINDU LIFE AND RELIGION TWO LAWS OF LIFE KARMA - The moral law of cause and effect according to which a person reaps what he or she sows SAMSARA (Law of reincarnation) - Rebirth according to the nature of a person’s karma.  - What you are now is the result of all that you have done in the past, and what you will become in the future is being determined by all your actions in the present. MOKSHA The final liberation from the endless cycles of birth, death and rebirth Ultimate spiritual goal of most Hindus Approaches in spiritual journey: Student - Study traditions, scriptures Householder - Support the world through rituals, work, and family life Hermit - Meditation away from society, leave his home, retire to the forest with his wife, continue rituals, and meditate on liberation from the world and rebirth. Wandering beggar - Renunciation of the world through extreme asceticism. - Abandon even his wife and rituals, wander continually, begging his food, and strive for the knowledge that emancipates him from the cycles of rebirth. BUDDHISM Dharma Wheel - Symbolizes the cycle of reincarnation, and the eight-fold path Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (about 600 BCE) - A prince of Shakya clan, who abandoned his royal lineage, lived as a monk, and finally became the Buddha (the enlightened one) Sacred Writings: - Texts containing Buddhavacana (The word of the Buddha) Basic doctrines: Dukkha (suffering) Samsara (cycle of reincarnation) Nirvana (spiritual release) Basic beliefs: The Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is permeated by suffering (Dukkha). 2. The cause (origin) of suffering is desire/craving (Tanha). 3. To end suffering is not to desire at all (elimination of craving). 4. The elimination of suffering requires following the Eight-Fold Path. Background of Buddhism - A religion to about 300 million people around the world. - 'budhi', “to awaken”. Origin: 2,500 years ago - Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, was himself awakened (enlightened) at the age of 35. SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA - born into a royal family in Lumbini, now in Nepal, in 563 BC. - At 29, he realized that wealth and luxury did not guarantee happiness - Explored the different teachings, religions and philosophies to find the key to human happiness.  - After six years of study and meditation he finally found 'the middle path and was enlightened. - Spent the rest of his life teaching the principles of Buddhism — called the Dhamma, or Truth — until his death at the age of 80. Is Buddha a God? He is not, nor did he claim to be. He was a man who taught a path to enlightenment from his own experience. 3 Marks of Existence Suffering (dukkha)\ - Every experience is marked by some quality of suffering, whether it’s extreme pain or a background sense of unease. - As long as we struggle to maintain a sense of solid self, our lives will be marked by struggles, stress and fear Impersonality (annata) - No solid, separate, single, fixed self. We have no core. We are product of multiple causes and conditions. - Describes what things are not. Non-self is emptiness in terms of space. - We cannot just cling to mere concepts/ideas of a self. Impermanence (anicca) - The Buddha said that all compounded phenomena disintegrate. - All things are made of parts, and all things fall apart. Everything dies. - Impermanence describes how things are. The Eight-Fold Path 1. Right Understanding Requires us to see life as such –that there is impermanence, suffering, and non self. To have proper understanding of human existence, the reality of human life. 2. Right Thought Mind must be free from impurities like cruelty, lust, and will. 3. Right Speech. Demands to refrain from gossip or idle talk, telling lies, harsh talk and backbiting. 4. Right Action. Avoidance of killing, stealing, lies, sexual misconduct, intoxication in drugs and alcoholic drinks. 5. Right Livelihood. Practice of correct and proper occupation If it’s not harmful and it gives justice to others.  6. Right Effort. Self-perfection Elude from any incoming evil, dispels an existing evil, bring about good which is yet to come and nourishes the existing good 7. Right Mindfulness Observance of four fundamental elements: body, feelings, mind and ideas. 8. Right Concentration Pertains to mind single objectiveness Practice meditation Nirvana - Terminal point of moral life in Buddhism means the “blowing out” (flame of a candle) - Liberation from resentment, lust, hatred, delusion, false view, grief and indecision. Video: History of Ideas - Religion Religion has historically been central to human concerns, providing explanations for the confusing world and a framework for rituals and offerings. Early Australian aboriginal religion, like many primitive religions, personified natural phenomena and societal laws through divine serpents, reflecting a universal human tendency to explain the unknown. Religion often serves to appease fears of the unknown, particularly death, by offering a narrative that includes an afterlife or divine intervention. Buddhism, exemplified by Siddhārtha Gautama (the Buddha), teaches followers to detach from suffering and the 'monkey mind' through meditation, aiming to calm the anxieties of life. The role of maternal figures like Guanyin in Buddhism and the Virgin Mary in Christianity suggests a universal human need for comfort and security, mirroring childhood feelings of safety. Charitable institutions, such as the almshouses in Winchester, England, demonstrate religion's traditional role in addressing social inequality and the duty of the rich to care for the poor. Scientific advancements, like Copernicus's heliocentric model, have challenged religious views of human significance, leading to a reevaluation of our place in the universe. The publication of 'The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined' by David Friedrich Strauss introduced a new perspective on religion, focusing on moral teachings rather than factual truth. The rise of cultural institutions like the Rijks Museum in Amsterdam reflects a shift towards art and culture as replacements for religious consolation and guidance. Richard Dawkins in 'The God Delusion' argues for the removal of religion from public culture, proposing science and secular institutions as replacements for religious functions.  Despite the decline in religious belief, the underlying human needs that religion has traditionally addressed—such as comfort in the face of death, community, and moral guidance—remain relevant and require new secular responses. The five major world religions - John Bellaimey Religions have evolved to answer profound questions about existence, morality, and the afterlife, often driven by faith and intuition. Hinduism, a collection of related beliefs and practices from India, emphasizes karma, dharma, and the cycle of rebirth (samsara), with the ultimate goal of achieving moksha, or liberation. Judaism, originating 4,000 years ago with Abraham, is a monotheistic faith centered on the covenant with God and the teachings of sacred scriptures like the Torah and Talmud. Buddhism began with Siddhartha Gautama, who became the Buddha after realizing that suffering is caused by selfish craving. The Eightfold Path provides a guide to overcoming suffering and achieving enlightenment. Christianity emerged from Judaism 2,000 years ago, centered on the teachings, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is believed to be the Son of God. Islam, founded by the prophet Muhammad 1,400 years ago, emphasizes submission to the will of Allah, with the Five Pillars providing a framework for Muslim life. Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are all major world religions, each with unique beliefs, practices, and traditions. Sacred texts play a vital role in many religions, serving as a source of guidance, law, and inspiration for followers. Common themes across religions include the search for meaning, the importance of morality, and the hope for an existence beyond death.  Religion has influenced culture, society, and history, with millions of adherents worldwide finding purpose, community, and identity through their faith. Reading assignments: What’s the difference between religion and spirituality? Religion Spirituality a specific set of organised beliefs and more of an individual practice and has to do practices, usually shared by a community or with having a sense of peace and purpose. It group also relates to the process of developing beliefs around the meaning of life and connection with others. Different types of spirituality? Mystical spirituality - It is based around a desire to move beyond the material world, beyond the senses, ego and even beyond time. This approach centres on personal relationships and a sense of unity with all things. Authoritarian spirituality - A particularly strong form of spirituality based around a need for definition and rules. This type of spirituality is particularly common in specific religious practices Intellectual spirituality - It focuses on building knowledge and understanding of spirituality through analysing history and spiritual theories. This approach can be found in the study of religion, also known as theology Service spirituality - A common form of spirituality in many religious faiths. This is predominantly built around serving others as a form of spiritual expression Social spirituality - Practiced by people who experience a spiritual feeling in the company of others. Social support is often seen as one of the important aspects of spirituality in general.