PSYC1001 Developmental Psychology Lecture 2 2024 PDF

PSYC1001: Developmental Psychology Lecture 2 The importance of the early environment Grace Sanders Consultation: By appointment [email protected] 1 Lecture Outline Influe...

PSYC1001: Developmental Psychology Lecture 2 The importance of the early environment Grace Sanders Consultation: By appointment [email protected] 1 Lecture Outline Influence of the early environment 1. Impoverished early environments Monkey experiments Orphanages Postnatal depression Class differences 2. Preschool interventions to enrich early environments HeadStart Program Abecederian Program 2 Background 3 Harlow (1965) Study of mother-infant bonds in monkeys Research question: How does social contact impact infant development? Investigations into the effects of total social isolation for varying periods of early life 4 Suomi & Harlow (1972) Social rehabilitation of isolate reared monkeys Isolation for the first 3 months: "emotional shock" – self-clutching and biting, rocking etc. but within a month of return to the group cage - behaving normally. Isolation for the first 6 months: as above but effects persisted (not reversed by peer housing). Isolation for the second 6 months: became aggressive and fearful when returned to group cage but quickly recovered. Isolation for the first 12 months: social misfits...no signs of recovery. Conclusions: - The severity of the behavioural disruption depends upon both duration of isolation and age at which it begins. - Children require more than food, water, and lack of disease 5 Effects of Early Social Deprivation Orphanage Studies 6 Descriptions of typical institutions in the 1940’s “The children had been reared in institutions outstanding for their standards of physical hygiene. To prevent epidemic infection babies below nine months of age were kept singly in separate cubicles. They had brief, hurried contacts with adults when they were cleaned and fed by the nurse. During the first year of life, therefore, each child lived in almost complete isolation.” (Goldfarb, 1955, p 108). 7 Effects of psychological deprivation in infancy and subsequent stimulation Goldfarb (1945) Goldfarb (1945) compared early (3years) placement of children in foster homes from orphanages. At age 12 found: Early placement - mean IQ = 95 Late placement - mean IQ = 72 Concluded: " When institutional effects go on for 3 yrs or more the effects are long lasting and probably irreversible". Dennis (1973) also noted “the greater the age of adoption, the lower the eventual IQ attained”. 8 Effects of psychological deprivation in infancy and subsequent stimulation Goldfarb (1945) Goldfarb described disabilities that are characteristic of children who spent 3 + years in an institution: Cognitive - Lower ability to conceptualise - Poorer speech development - Inability to concentrate - Poorer school achievement Social-emotional - Social immaturity - Aggressiveness - Insatiable for affection but unable to form secure bonds - Inability to adhere to rules and failure to show guilt when they broke rules Paul Ekman - Copyright 9 English/Romanian Adoption Study 10 Conditions in Romanian orphanages 11 Conditions in Romanian orphanages “Some of the residential institutions were officially labeled ‘hospitals’ and some ‘orphanages’, but in practice there were few major differences between them in that both provided long-term care for children whose parents had given up looking after them for one reason or another. The conditions in these institutions varied from poor to appalling. In most instances the children were mainly confined to cots; there were few, if any, toys or playthings; there was very little talk from caregivers; no personalised caregiving; feeding of gruel by bottles with large teats, often left propped up; and variable, but sometimes harsh, physical environments. Thus washing often consisted of being hosed down with cold water.” Rutter et al (1998, p466). 12 English/Romanian Adoption Study Purpose of study Examining recovery in orphans following removal from impoverished circumstances. Will help determine if initial deficits were caused by early impoverishment. 13 English/Romanian Adoption Study Sample (a) Experimental Group: 111 children from Romania who were adopted into English families before the age of 2 years. (b) Contrast Group: 52 adoptees from within England. Both groups were assessed at 4 years of age. Adopting parents for both groups were above average in education and occupation (no between group difference). 14 English/Romanian Adoption Study Rutter et al (1998) Rutter et al., compared children who were adopted by a UK family after spending: (i) < 6 months in a Romanian institution (ii) 6 – 24 months in a Romanian institution (iii) < 6 months in a UK institution before being adopted by a UK family 15 English/Romanian Adoption Study Measures (a) Physical – height, weight, head circumference (b) Cognitive/Developmental taken at entry to UK* and at 4 yrs * Cognitive/developmental measures at entry to UK were retrospective (based on adoptive parental recall) 16 English/Romanian Adoption Study Results Physical measures (Percentage below 3rd percentile) At entry to UK At 4-yrs Weight 50% 20% Height 30% 10% Head circ. 40% 13% Cognitive measures Mean DQ 63 (60% < 50) approx. 100* * UK = before 6-mths > after 6-mths Considerable catch-up by age 4-years. Catch-up was greatest for those adopted before 6-months. 17 English/Romanian Adoption Study Results IQ at 4-years 18 English/Romanian Adoption Study Follow up Follow-up at 6-years of age Weight & Head-circumference at 6-yrs Catch-up in weight was virtually complete by 6-yrs except for most extreme malnourished cases Significant head-circumference deficits persisted even when weight catch- up was largely complete. Continued impairment in head growth could not be accounted for solely in terms of the effects of malnutrition on overall body growth. 19 English/Romanian Adoption Study Follow up Cognitive assessment at 6-years Cognitive impairment in 15% of Romanian adoptees compared with 2% of within UK adoptees A linear association of impairment with duration of institutional care i.e., the longer the duration, the higher % impaired The only other major correlate with cognitive functioning was head circumference. 20 English/Romanian Adoption Study Follow up Assessment in young adulthood (Sonuga-Barke et al., 2017): For Romanian adoptees that were adopted before 6 months-old, outcomes very similar to UK adoptee controls. For Romanian adoptees that were adopted after 6 months-old, many differences. Higher rates of cognitive impairment, autism-spectrum disorder, adhd symptoms, lower self-reported rates of emotional well being, high rates of mental health services. 21  Conclusions from orphanage studies Children who spent the first period of life in deprived (orphanage) environments suffer lasting cognitive and social/emotional deficits The effects of this deprivation can be overcome by a move to a stimulating (enriched) environment The degree to which the deficits can be overcome is related to the period of time spent in the deprived environment (the earlier the move, the greater the recovery)). Moreover the effects of deprivation are mediated by individual differences and/or resilience 22 More “typical” impoverished environments 23 Post-Natal Depression Field (2010); Halligan, Herbert, Goodyer, & Murray (2004) PND estimated between 20-40% of mothers Mothers suffering from PND are more irritable and hostile, less engaged, exhibit less emotion and warmth, and have lower rates of play with their infants at 3 months Non-depressed mothers are actively involved in interacting with their infants, showing responsive face-to-face communication which includes positive affect, play and communication 24 Post-Natal Depression Field (2010); Halligan, Herbert, Goodyer, & Murray (2004) Various research groups have linked effects throughout childhood of maternal PND, including behaviour problems, cognitive delays and health problems, to disturbed early interactions At 13 years old, children from PND mothers during infancy (who had no depression when children were 5) had increased cortisol levels, a stress hormone predictive of anxiety disorders, etc. At 21, more reactivity to stressful situations, greater risk of anxiety and depression 25 SES & Disadvantaged Children Heckman (2006) Early environment differences across SES lines affects every area of development: cognitive, social, emotional Lower SES children are behind entering school and in does not improve. 26 SES & Disadvantaged Children Heckman (2006) Economic argument for pre-school investment Cheaper and actually effective compared to remedial education, job training, and police force/prisons. 27  Preschool Interventions Head-Start & Abecederian 28 Head-Start Program Introduced in 1964 - Children at risk (disadvantaged) given special early education programs Goals: Improve physical and mental health Enhance cognitive skills Foster social and emotional development Components: Early childhood education Health screening and referral - mental health services Nutrition education and hot meals Social services for child and family Parental involvement 29 Initial Head-Start Studies Starting 1965 Compared children who had special preschool programs as part of Head Start with no treatment controls. Treatment - summer programs prior to starting school Findings: (I) Immediate cognitive (IQ) gains but these ‘washed out’ over the follow-up period (grade 2) (II) Gains in non-cognitive areas (e.g., improved social competence) persisted to grade 2 follow-up (III) In the longer term (grades 6-8) gains in the non-cognitive areas persisted and this was still the case in adulthood. 30 Initial Head-Start Studies Woodhead (1985) Long-term effects of school readiness (preschool) program: No lasting IQ gains but significantly fewer referrals for “special education” programs (i.e., children coped better with school) and increased likelihood of finishing high school 31 Perry Preschool Program see Zigler & Styfco (1994) Participants: 58 children from disadvantaged backgrounds Treatment: focus on preschool education (1 or 2 yrs) plus some home visits to ‘teach’ parents Results: No permanent IQ gains BUT better social competence 32 More Recent Head Start Programs Early Head Start began in 1995 - Same goals and elements as Head Start but an earlier start (before 3-years). Designed to serve low-income pregnant women and families with infants and toddlers up to 3-years of age. By 2005 - over 700 such programs (62000 low-income families). Many focus on training mothers/caregivers. Outcomes at 3-years EHS children: Better than controls EHS parents: more emotionally on cognitive and language skills, supportive, provided more displayed higher emotional language and learning engagement of parent and stimulation, read more to sustained attention when playing children and spanked less and were less aggressive 33 The Abecedarian Project 34 The Abecedarian Project https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xS bX-dJMjmM Abcedarian Project 35 The Abecedarian Project Ramey & Ramey (2004) Features of the approach It began early in infancy Random assignment of infants from low-income families to intervention (n = 57) and control (n = 54) conditions No initial differences on infant mental and motor tests Treated children had 5 years of exposure to early education in a high-quality child-care setting Individualised programs – emphasis on language 36 The Abecedarian Project Results At 4-yrs - benefits in language, social interactions and IQ. At 12, 15, 21-yrs - benefits in IQ, reading and maths. Enhanced language skills a major factor in enhancing cognitive skills. At 21-yrs - intervention group had higher education level and lower unemployment. Conclusion: Early high-quality childhood education significantly improves the scholastic success and educational attainments of disadvantaged children even into early adulthood 37  Conclusions from Preschool Interventions Early intervention is effective in improving a wide variety of skills and competences in deprived children (e.g., social competence, IQ, school retention, job prospects) The intervention must begin early, preferably before 3 years of age Parental involvement is required for success An emphasis on language shows greater results The intervention should be of sufficient quality 40 The Importance of the Early Environment Take home messages The early environment has a substantial influence on the development of a child; deprivation (in different forms) can cause deficits in cognitive, social, emotional as well as physical development The impact of the deprivation depends on the time spent in this situation The effects of deprivation and SES differences are not the same for every child, some children are less affected than others, depending on individual differences and/or resilience The effects of deprivation can be overcome and preschool interventions go a long way to make up SES deficits Investing in preschool is arguably one of the best uses of public funds 41 References Suomi & Harlow (1972). Social rehabilitation of isolated reared monkeys. Developmental Psychol. 6: 487-496. Michael Rutter and the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) study team. (1998). Developmental catch-up and deficit, following adoption after severe global early deprivation. J.Child Psychol. Psychiat. Vol 39, No. 4, pp. 465 – 476. Field, T. (2010). Postpartum depression effects on early interactions, parenting, and safety practices: A review. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(1), 1-6. Halligan, S. L., Herbert, J., Goodyer, I. M., & Murray, L. (2004). Exposure to postnatal depression predicts elevated cortisol in adolescent offspring. Biological psychiatry, 55(4), 376-381. Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900-1902. Woodhead, M. (1985). Pre School Education Has Long Term Effects: but can they be generalised? Oxford Review of Education, 11 (2), 133-155. Zigler, E. & Styfco, S.J. (1994). Head Start: Criticisms in a constructive context. American Psychologist, 49, 2, 127-132. Ramey, C. T., & Ramey, S. L. (2004). Early learning and school readiness: can early intervention make a difference? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly. 50 (4), 471-491 42