HPCS4027 Introduction to Developmental Psychology Lecture 5 Early Childhood PDF

HPCS4027 Introduction to Developmental Psychology Lecture 5 Early childhood (2024-25, Sem 1) Cognitive Social Emotional Physical Outline § v v § v v v Psychosocial changes Psychosexual development § Anal stage (1 to 3 years...

HPCS4027 Introduction to Developmental Psychology Lecture 5 Early childhood (2024-25, Sem 1) Cognitive Social Emotional Physical Outline § v v § v v v Psychosocial changes Psychosexual development § Anal stage (1 to 3 years) Ø Toilet training Ø Gain control of their bodily function § Phallic stage (3 to 6 years) Ø Identifying with the same sex parents Ø Healthy development requires BOTH parents Ø Renegotiate their relationships with their parents for stepping out into the world of peers Psychosocial development § Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (age 2-3) Ø Centered around the toddler’s new mobility Ø Sense of control over their own actions Ø Strive for independence from others § Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (age 3-6) Ø Initiate activities in a socially acceptable manner Ø Importance of proper encouragement and boundaries Ø Fails to achieve the self-control è Excessive guilt & defensiveness Psychosocial development § Role of parents § Balancing between emergent skills and desire for autonomy § Need to protect the child and control the child’s behavior § Degree of control Person perception § Ability to classify others according to categories such as age, gender, and race § Children use their observation to classify others into groups § Less consistent § Base on their most recent interactions § Cross-race effect § More likely to remember the faces of people of their own race Understanding others’ intentions § Children understand that intentional wrongdoing is punished more severely than unintentional § Children’s judgement is influenced by outcomes Personality development § Low ranking on the dimension of effortful control § § § § marshmallow test (5’) Personality development § Children with difficult temperament § § Personality = Temperament + Experience § Importance of parental responses § § Self-concept Categorical Self § First emerged during infancy § Focus on visible characteristics, e.g. I am a girl, I have black hair Emotional Self § Control of emotions shifts from parental control to the child § Parents who expect age-related behaviors increase the ability of self control. e.g. By age 3, child should be toilet-trained. § Acquisition of emotional self-regulation, i.e. the ability of controlling emotional states and emotion-related behavior. § e.g. Control temper and related behavior like biting/kicking others Self-concept Longitudinal researches show § High control associated with peer popularity § Lack of control associated with aggression, emotional problems and ability to obey moral rules in future Self-concept Emotional Self-control problems are found in: § Difficult babies § Premature-term baby and toddlers with delay of language in their second year of life § Difficult temperament and developmental delays are two important risk factors for Disruptive Mood Dysregualtion disorder (DMDD) § Exhibit intense rage, aggressive and destructive behavior, 2 to 3 times/wk § Moral emotions: guilt, shame and pride § Cultural definitions of right or wrong Emotional self Emergence of Empathy § Experience the same feeling he imagines the other person to feel § Experience highly similar feeling § Negatively associated with aggression in early childhood years § Provide the foundation for the development of sympathy in later childhood and adolescence Empathy (3’) Emotional self Moral emotions § Feeling of guilt if a person breaks the rules § Feeling of shame when she fails to meet the expectation § Foundation of later moral development § Evolve the from parent-child relationship § Insecure child is at risk of failing to develop moral emotion Social self Starts with Sociodramatic Play § The child aware himself / herself as a player in social games. § Learns many social scripts, which provide cues for appropriate situational behaviors. § e.g. teacher and student; doctor and nurse § Sociodramatic play helps to develop social scripts § Helps children to become more independent § e.g. “student” role helps preschooler understand the appropriate behavior in the school setting Gender development § Gender (Perceived self ≠ Sex (Biological factor)) § Gender identity (label the sex of people correctly) By age 3, children label themselves as boys or girls § Gender stability (stable characteristics) Later, gender is perceived as stable over time. Boys invariably grow up to become men and girls grow up to be women § Gender constancy (self-concept, rather than physical appearance) The gender concept is complete when the child realizes that one’s sex is also stable across situations. Five-to seven-year-olds who have reached this stage are no longer fooled by appearances. They know that one’s gender cannot be altered by cross-dressing or taking up cross-sex activities. Gender development § Gender Schema Theory Develops as soon as the child notices the differences between male and female § Assimilation Process Show preference for same-sex playmates & gender- stereotyped activities § Sex-typed behavior Develops earlier than idea about gender Children begin to show a preference for same-sex friends More sociable with playmates of the same sex (Shaffer & Kipp, 2009) Basic gender identity Form gender schemas and gender appropriate behaviour Firm gender schemas and gender appropriate behaviour Reexamine gender identity Gender development Cross-gender behavior § More common among girls than boys § Peers actively discourage boys from engaging in cross-gender behaviour Expressions of disapproval Family relationships and structure Attachment § Securely attached to parents experience fewer behavior problems § Positive relationships with their preschool teachers § Insecurely attached display more anger and aggression § Realize they are independent contributors to the parent-child relationship  Parenting style § Families vary in their responses to preschoolers' increasing demand for independence § Four aspects of family functioning: 1. Warmth or nurturance 2. Clarity and consistency of rules 3. Level of expectations 4. Communication between parent and child Parenting style 1. Warmth and Nurturance § Children are more likely to be securely attached § have higher IQ and self esteem § more empathetic and altruistic § more compliant in preschool and elementary school § do better in school § less likely to show delinquent / criminal behavior in adolescence / adulthood § high level of affection can buffer disadvantageous environment § poor neighborhood but with warm parents show academic and social competence § poor neighborhood and hostile parents show poor school performance and higher risk of delinquency Parenting style 2. Clarity and Consistency of Rules § children are more competent and less aggressive § less likely to be defiant or non-compliant 3. Maturity of expectations and demands § high “Maturity Demands” = high expectation § featured by not overly restrictive, explain things to children and avoid physical punishment § children have higher self-esteem § more generosity and altruism towards others Parenting style 4. Communications between child and parent § open and regular communication ~ more +ve outcomes § if parents listen and respect to child’s opinion, children are more emotionally and socially mature Parenting style Authoritarian Parenting § A very restrictive pattern of parenting in which adults impose many rules, expect strict obedience, and will rarely if ever explain to the child why it is necessary to comply with all these regulations. § These parents will often rely on punitive, forceful tactics (such as power-assertion or love withdrawal) to gain compliance, and not sensitive to a child’s differing viewpoint. § They are domineering and expect the child to accept their word as law and respect their authority. Parenting style Authoritarian Parenting Child Consequences § Good (but less well) school performance § Lower self-esteem and fewer peer interaction skills § Some inhibited; others highly aggressive § Longitudinal studies show teenagers from authoritarian families had poorer grades in school and more negative self-concepts than those from authoritative families. Parenting style Authoritative Parenting § A controlling but flexible style in which parents make many reasonable demands of their children. They are careful to provide rationales for complying with the limits they set and will ensure that their children follow those guidelines. § They are much more accepting of and responsive to their children’s points of view, and will often seek their children’s participation in family decision making. § Authoritative parents exercise control in a rational, democratic way that recognizes and respects their children’s perspectives. Parenting style Characteristics of Authoritative Parents § more likely to be involved in child’s school and talk to teachers o crucial role for better school performance of child o when not involved in school, result is not that clearly positive o not authoritative style but highly involved in school, result is not that clearly positive § inductive discipline o strategy in which parents explain to the child why a punished behavior is wrong; discourage physical punishment o helps children in preschool to gain control of their behavior and gain perspective of other’s feelings § not equally effective for all children, especially those with difficult temperament or physically active or enjoy risk-taking Parenting style Authoritative Parenting Child Consequences § Higher self-esteem, independence, altruism § More parental compliance § Self-confident and achievement oriented § Better school performance § Less psychological symptoms and delinquent behavior § Most consistently positive outcomes Parenting style Permissive Parenting § An accepting but lax pattern of parenting in which adults make relatively few demands, permit their children to freely express their feelings and impulses, do not closely monitor their children’s activities, and rarely exert firm control over their behavior. Child Consequences § Slightly worse adolescent school performance § More aggressive and immature § Less responsible and independent Parenting style Uninvolved Parenting § An extremely lax and undemanding approach displayed by parents who have either rejected their children or are so overwhelmed with their own stresses and problems that they haven’t much time or energy to devote to child rearing (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). § These parents impose few rules and demands. They are uninvolved and insensitive to their children’s needs. Parenting style Child Consequences § disturbances in social relationships § more impulsive and antisocial in adolescence § less competent with peers § much less achievement-oriented in school § the most consistently negative outcomes Effects of parenting style § Interaction between parenting style and child temperament o Parents explain to children why a punished behavior is wrong o Less effective for children with difficult temperaments or who are physically active / enjoy risk taking § Involvement in children's school and parenting style o Highly involved + authoritative style show an optimal outcome § Parents of poorly behaved children may be more authoritarian To spank or not to spank? Recommendations § Never appropriate for children under age 2 § It is best not to spank; if it is to be used, spank only when harm to child or others is at stake and provide explanations. § Premack Principle o Any high-frequency activity can be used as a reinforcer for any lower-frequency activity. o e.g. The child likes to watch TV (high-frequency activity). So, TV can be used as a reinforcer to reduce misbehavior (low-frequency behavior) o If misbehave then reduce TV time To spank or not to spank? Consequences § Short term: o undesirable behavior usually reduced and stopped § Long term: o models infliction of pain as technique to solve problems; o links spanking parent with pain; o creates a family climate of emotional rejection; o associated with higher child aggression § Spanking combines with genetic factors such as a difficult temperament: o Significantly increase a child’s risk of developing disruptive behavior disorders  InBrief: The Science of Neglect Abuse and Neglect Neglected Child (6’) § Child Abuse: Physical or psychological injury resulting from adult’s intentional exposure of child to potentially harmful stimuli, sexual acts, or neglect § Significant neglect cause more lasting harm to a young child's development than overt physical abuse, including subsequent cognitive delays, impairments in executive functioning, and disruptions of the body’s stress response. Prevalence § Responsible for about 10% of emergency room visits § Between 1% and 5% of children suffer physical abuse § 2,000 infants and children die each year as result of child abuse Child Protection Registry Statistical Report (2018) Social Welfare Department https://www.swd.gov.hk/storage/asset/section/3219/en/Annual_CPR_Report_2018.pdf Abuse and Neglect Risk factors § Overview: Sociocultural factors o Personal or cultural values that regard physical abuse as morally acceptable o Cultural traditions that view children as property o Communities that support these beliefs § Characteristics of child o Physical or mental disabilities o Difficult temperaments o Age Abuse and Neglect Risk factors: abuser characteristics § Characteristics of Abuser o Depressed o Lacking in parenting skills and knowledge o History of abuse themselves o Substance abusers o Live-in male partners (whose children are not theirs) Abuse and neglect Risk factors: family stress § Family stress o Poverty o Unemployment o Inter-parental conflicts § The presence of several factors in combination increases likelihood of abuse Abuse and neglect Consequences of abuse § Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) § Delays in all developmental domains § Children removed from the abusive situation typically appear to catch up within 1 year, related to quality of post-abuse environment Preventing abuse with education! § Inform parents about consequences § Parenting classes § Identify families at risk § Protect children from further injury Peer relationship Parallel play (by 14 – 18 months) § Express interest in one another § Gaze at or making noises at one another Cooperative play (by 3 or 4) § Several children work together to achieve a goal § Either constructive or symbolic Peer relationship Social skills § Skilled in group entry o Spend time observing others o Find out what they are doing Important factor in future o Try to become a part of it social development § Poor group-entry skills o Gain acceptance through aggressive behavior or by interrupting the group Peer relationship Sex differences § Poorly developed group-entry skills o Girls: Spent more time in parallel play than cooperative play o Boys: Tend to be aggressive Intervention § Taught specific verbal phrases to use when trying to gain acceptance by a group of peers § Immediate gains in social acceptance Aggression § Throw things or hit each other è Verbal aggression § Influential factors: Reinforcement; Modeling; Playmates 2 to 4 years old 4 to 8 years old Physical aggression At its peak Declines Verbal aggression Relatively rare at 2 Dominant form of aggression Goal of aggression Mostly instrumental Mostly hostile Occasion of Most often after conflicts with Most often after conflicts with aggression parents peers Prosocial behavior § Most of the prosocial behavior seems to increase with age § Comforting another child o More common among preschoolers and children in early elementary grades § High level of prosocial behaviors o More empathy o More altruistic behavior o Regulate their own emotions well Prosocial behavior § Parental influences o Warmth o Clear and consistent explanation of rules o Stating rules or guidelines positively rather than negatively o Parental modeling  References