Early Childhood Development PDF

Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Brain is 90% of its...

Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Brain is 90% of its peak volume Summary Permanent teeth begins to appear 3 years old Has an expressive vocabulary of 2,600 words Children begin to lose their babyish roundness and understands more than 20,000 and take on the slender, athletic appearance of 7 years old childhood Children start to understand that mental states Brain is approximately 90% of adult weight can drive emotions Cannot turn or stop suddenly or quickly Can jump a distance of 15-24 inches Physical Development Can ascend a stairway unaided, alternating feet o Head is till large, but the other parts of the body Can hop continue to catch up as body proportions Handedness is evident steadily become adult-like All primary teeth are evident Can now pick up tiny objects between their o Growth Hormone Deficiency – absence or thumb and forefingers (tho still clumsy) deficiency of growth hormone produced by Know the difference between reality and pituitary gland to stimulate the body to grow imagination o Sleep problems are occasional and usually Can use 900 to 1000 words outgrown Typically begin to use plurals, possessives, and o Many of sleep problems issues are the result of past tense ineffective parenting 4 years old o Persistent sleep problems may indicate Peak of the density of synapses in the prefrontal emotional, physiological, or neurological cortex condition that needs to be examines More effective control of stopping, starting, and o Night terrors generally peach at about 1 ½ turning years and are common between 2 ½ and 4 Can jump a distance of 24-33 inches years of age Can descend a long stairway alternating feet if o Sleepwalking, sleeptalking, and night terrors supported are common when children are sleep deprived, Able to categorize objects to identify similarities have fever or on medications, or when and differences conditions are noisy Can tell the differences in size o Nightmares are common during early childhood They conversate in sentences and may be o Enuresis – repeated involuntary urination at declarative, negative, interrogative, or imperative night by children old enough to have bladder Can recognize facial expressions, recognize control emotions thru vocal cues and body postures ▪ Genetics may play role 5 years old o Motor coordination in childhood tends to be Can start, turn, and stop effectively in games relatively stable over time Can descend a long stairway, unaided Run hard and enjoy races with each other o Handedness – the preference of using one Hand, arm, and body move together under better hand over the other command of the eye ▪ Left-handedness run in families Can now count to 20 or more and know the o 41 million children under age 5 were obese in relative sizes of the numbers 1 through 10 2016 Speech is quite adultlike o Stunted Children – normal weight but shorter Children understand the public aspects of than they should for their age and may have emotions (understand the things that causes cognitive and physical deficiencies, visible in others to be sad or happy) developing countries 6 years old  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Food Allergies are more prevalent in children ▪ Pretend Play – fantasy play, dramatic play, than in adults and most of them outgrow their or imaginary play; children use an object to allergies represent something else o Car accidents are the most commonly reported ▪ The most extensive use of symbolic function cause of accidental death for children over the is language age of 4 ▪ Occurs between ages of 2 and 4 o Children exposed to tobacco smoke are more 2. Intuitive Thought – begin to use primitive likely to develop wheezing symptoms and reasoning and want to know the answers to all asthma, and have a higher risk for high-blood sorts of questions pressure o Other common causes of death in early ▪ Occurs approx. 4-7 yrs of age childhood: cancer, congenital abnormalities, o Children also begin to able to understand the and chromosomal disorders, assault, heart symbols that describe physical spaces disease, respiratory disease and septicemia o Piaget believed that children cannot yet reason o Contextual factors such as poverty and logically about causality parenting quality are linked to the development o Transduction – they mentally link two events, of the brain especially events close in time, whether or not here is logically a causal relationship Cognitive Development o Identities – the concept that people and many Preoperational Stage by Jean Piaget things are basically the same even if they change in outward form, size, or appearance o Jean Piaget’s second stage of cognitive o Animism – tendency to attribute life to objects development that are not alive o Lasting from ages 2 to 7, characterized by the o Centration – the tendency to focus on one expansion in the use of symbolic thought aspect of a situation and neglect others o Children begin to represent the world with ▪ Children cannot Decenter (think about words, images, and drawings several aspects of a situation at one time) o Dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs ▪ Involves on focusing on one dimension o Does not yet perform Operations (which are while ignoring the other reversible mental actions that allow children to ▪ Irreversibility – failure to understand that do mentally what before they could do only an action can go in two or more directions physically) o Egocentrism – young children center so much o Preoperational Thought – beginning of the on their own point of view that they cannot take ability to reconstruct in thought what has been in another’s established in behavior o Conservation – the fact that two things are o Divided into Symbolic Function and Intuitive equal remain so if their appearance is altered, Thought as long as nothing is added or taken away 1. Symbolic Function – being able to think about o Theory of Mind – the awareness of the broad something in the absence of sensory or motor range of human mental states – beliefs, intents, cues desires, dreams, and so forth – and the understanding that others have their own ▪ Can use symbols, or mental representations ▪ Allows us to understand and predict the such as words, numbers, or images to behavior of others and makes the social which a person has attached meaning world understandable ▪ Deferred Imitation – children imitate an action at some point after observing it  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) Information-Processing Approach: Memory o Attention – defined as the focusing of mental resources on select information o Memory can be described as a filing system ▪ Executive Attention – involves action that has three steps: planning, allocating attention to goals, error 1. Encoding – putting information in the memory detection and compensation, monitoring 2. Storage – putting away in the filing cabinet progress on tasks, etc. where it is kept ▪ Sustained Attention – focused and 3. Retrieval – searching for the information and extended engagement with an object, tasks, take it out of the memory system and dealing with novel or difficult o Three types of Storage: circumstances A. Sensory Memory – temporary storage for ▪ Preschool children are likely to pay attention incoming sensory information to stimuli that stand out (salient) B. Working Memory – short-term storehouse for ▪ Preschool children tend to use haphazard information a person is actively working on, comparison strategy, not examining all of trying to understand, remember, or think about the details before making a judgement ▪ Located partly in the prefrontal cortex C. Long-Term Memory – storehouse of virtually Intelligence: Psychometric Approach and Lev unlimited capacity that holds information for Vygotsky long period of time o 3-5 yr old children are more proficient with o The central executive also retrieves information language than younger children from LTM, assisted by: o Two most commonly used individual tests for 1) Phonological Loop – aids in the processing of preschoolers are: verbal information 1. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales – used for 2) Visuospatial Sketchpad – maintains and ages 2 and up, taking 45 to 60 mins manipulates visual information ▪ Child is ask to define words, string beads, o Executive Function – the conscious control of build blocks, etc. thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish ▪ Measure fluid reasoning, knowledge, goals or to solve problems quantitative reasoning, etc. ▪ Enables children to plan and carry out 2. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of goal-directed mental activity Intelligence – individual test taking 30 to 60 o Recognition – ability to identify something mins encountered before ▪ Yields verbal, performance, and combined o Recall – ability to reproduce knowledge from scores memory ▪ Includes subtests designed to measure both o Generic Memory – begins at 2 years old, verbal and nonverbal fluid reasoning, etc. produces a script of a familiar, repeated event o According to Vygotsky, children learn by o Episodic Memory – refers to awareness of internalizing the results of interactions with having experienced a particular event at a adults specific time and place (if repeated, it becomes o Zone of Proximal Development – the generic memory) imaginary psychological space between what o Autobiographical memory – refers to children can do or know by themselves and memories of distinctive experiences that form a what they could do or know with help person’s life history ▪ Can be assessed by Dynamic Tests ▪ Generally emerges between ages 3 to 4 ▪ Combined with Scaffolding – supportive ▪ The more unique an event is, the more assistance that a more sophisticated children remember it better interaction partner provides, and ideally it should be aimed at ZPD  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) ▪ Takes a social constructivist approach Psychosocial Development (social contexts of learning and the Self construction of knowledge through social interaction) o Self-Concept – our total picture of our abilities and traits Language o Children’s self-definition typically change o Fast Mapping – allows a child to pick up between ages 5 and 7 approximate meaning of a new word after o At about 7, children will be able to describe hearing it only once or twice in conversation themselves in terms of generalized traits ▪ Nouns are easier to fast map than verbs o Self-Esteem – self-evaluative part of the o Syntax – a concept and involves the rules for self-concept, the judgement children make putting together sentences in a particular about their overall worth language ▪ Children’s self-esteem tends to be o Pragmatics – practical knowledge of how to unidimensional (either good or bad) use language to communicate ▪ Children whose self-esteem is contingent on o Social Speech – speech intended to be success tend to become demoralized when understood by a listener they fail o Private Speech – talking aloud to oneself with ▪ Children with noncontingent self-esteem no intent to communicate with others tend to attribute failure or disappointment to (Egocentric Speech) factors outside themselves or to the need to ▪ Immature (Piaget) try harder ▪ Learning Process (Vygotsky) o Emotional self-regulation helps children guide o Emergent Literacy – development of their behavior and adjust their responses to fundamental skills that eventually lead to being meet societal expectations able to read o Emotion-Coaching Parents – monitor their ▪ Social interaction promotes emergent children’s emotions, view negative emotions as literacy opportunities for teaching, assist them in labelling emotions, and coach them in how to Early Childhood Education deal effectively with emotions o Child-centered Kindergarten – emphasizes o Emotion-Dismissing Parents – view their role the education of the whole child and concern as to deny, ignore, or change negative for his or her physical, cognitive, and emotions socioemotional development o Social Emotions – involve a comparison of o Montessori Method – based on the beliefs one’s self or one’s actions to social standards that children’s natural intelligence involves ▪ Guilt, shame and pride rational, spiritual, and empirical aspects ▪ Developed after they gain self-awareness ▪ Children have given considerable freedom and accept the standards of behavior their and spontaneity in choosing activities parents have set o Reggio Emilia Approach – less formal than o Preschool children can do-and want to do-more Montessori; teachers follow children’s interest and more. At the same time, they are learning and support them in exploration that some of the things they want to do meet o Developmentally Appropriate Practice – social approval, whereas others do not based on knowledge of the typical Approximate Crisis Virtue development of children within an age span as Age Developed well as the uniqueness of the child Play Age (3-5 Initiative Purpose yrs) versus Guilt  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Purpose – the courage to envision and pursue o Gender-Schema Theory – it views children as goals without being unduly inhibited by guilt or actively extracting knowledge about gender fear of punishment from their environment before engaging in o Maladaptive Tendency: Ruthlessness – don’t gender-typed behavior care who they step in just to achieve their goals ▪ Place more emphasis on the influence of o Malignant Tendency: Inhibition – too much culture guilt to do anything so nothing would happen ▪ Children match their behavior to their Gender culture’s view of what boys and girls are supposed to be and do o Gender Identity – awareness of one’s o According to Walter Mischel, children acquire femaleness or maleness and all it implies in gender roles by imitating models and being one’s society of origin rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior o Gender Differences – psychological or o Social Cognitive Theory – observation behavioral differences between males and enables children to learn much about females gender-typed behaviors before performing o Boys and girls do equally well on tasks them involving basic mathematical skills and are equally capable of learning math but show Play variations in specific abilities o Play is vitally important to development and o Gender Roles – behaviors, interests, attitudes, has significant current and long-term functions skills, and personality traits that a culture o Enables children to engage with the world considers appropriate for males or females around them, use imagination, to discover o Gender-typing – the acquisition of gender role flexible ways to use objects and solve o Gender Stereotypes – preconceived problems, and to prepare for adult roles generalizations about male or female behavior o Cognitive Levels of Play: o Gender differences were purely cultural 1. Functional Play (Locomotor Play or inventions Sensorimotor Play)– simplest level; begins o Theory of Sexual Selection – the selection of during infancy, consisting of repeated practice sexual partners is a response to differing in large muscular movements reproductive pressures early men and women 2. Constructive Play (Object Play or Practice confronted in the study for survival Play) – use of objects or materials to make o Identification – adoption of characteristics, something beliefs, attitudes, values, and behaviors of the 3. Dramatic Play (Pretend Play, Fantasy Play, parent of the same sex Imaginative Play) – involves imaginary o According to Kohlberg, Children actively search objects, actions, or roles for cues about gender in their social world o 6 Types of Play by Parten (1932) o Gender Constancy – a child’s realization that a. Unoccupied Behavior – child does not seem his or her gender will always be the same to be playing but watches anything of ▪ Gender Identity – awareness of one’s own momentary interest gender and that of others, which typically b. Onlooker Behavior – child spends most time occurs ages 2 and 3 watching others play ▪ Gender Stability – awareness that gender c. Solitary Independent Play – child plays alone does not change 3.5-4.5 d. Parallel Play – plays beside the other children ▪ Gender Consistency – the realization that independently a girl remains a girl even if she has a short e. Associative Play – children talk, borrow, and haircut and plays with trucks, typically lend toys, follow each other around and play occurs between ages 3 and 7 similarly  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) f. Cooperative or Organized Supplementary ▪ To consider how her actions would affect Play – child plays in a group organized for others some goal – to make something, play formal o Power Assertion – intended to stop or game, or dramatize a situation discourage undesirable behavior through o Reticent Play – combination of Unoccupied physical or verbal enforcement and Onlooker categories is often a o Withdrawal of Love – include ignoring, manifestation of shyness isolating, or showing dislike for a child o Social Play – involves interaction with peers o Types of Child Maltreatment o Constructive play – combines 1) Physical Abuse – infliction of physical injury sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic 2) Child Neglect – failure to provide child’s basic representation needs o Games – activities that children engage in for 3) Sexual Abuse pleasure and that have rules 4) Emotional Abuse – acts or omissions by o Sex Segregation is common among parents or other caregivers that have caused or preschoolers and becomes more prevalent in could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or middle childhood emotional problems o Gender Segregation – a phenomenon o Parenting Styles wherein girls tend to select other girls as a. Authoritarian – emphasizes control and playmates, and so boys unquestioning obedience, high control, low responsiveness Parenting b. Permissive/Indulgent – make few demands, o Discipline – refers to methods of molding warm, noncontrolling, low control, high character and of teaching self-control and responsiveness acceptable behavior c. Authoritative – emphasizes child’s o External Reinforcements – may be tangible individuality but also stress limits, high control, or intangible; it must be seen as rewarding and high responsiveness received fairly consistently after showing d. Neglectful or Uninvolved – parents neglect desired behavior children; low control, low responsiveness o Internal Reinforcements – a sense of o Altruism – motivation to help another person pleasure or accomplishment with no expectation of reward o Punishment, if consistent, immediate, and o Prosocial Behavior – voluntary, positive clearly tied to the offense, may be effective actions to help others ▪ Administered calmly, in private, and aimed o Instrumental Aggression – used aggression at eliciting compliance not guilt as a tool to gain access to a wanted object ▪ Effective when accompanied with short ▪ Overt (Direct) Aggression – boys; tend to explanation openly direct aggressive acts at a target ▪ The desired behavior should be clear ▪ Relational Aggression – more subtle; ▪ Corporal Punishment – the use of physical indirect social aggression force with the intention of causing a child to Relationships with other children experience pain but not injury for the purpose of correction or control of the o The quality of siblings relationships tends to child’s behavior carry over to relationships with other children o Inductive Techniques – designed to and the other way around encourage desirable behavior or discourage o Only children are more motivated to achieve undesirable behavior by settling limits, and to have slightly better self-esteem demonstrating logical consequences of the Moral Development action, explaining, discussing, etc.  Developmental Psychology Early Childhood Source: Papalia (2021), Santrock (2018) o Involves thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people o According to Freud, children attempts to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and maintain parental affection by identifying with parents and internalizing their standards of right and wrong, thus forming Superego o Piaget’s Moral Reasoning 1. Heteronomous Morality – children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people ▪ 4-7 years of age end ▪ Consider its consequences, not its intentions ▪ “law is law” ▪ Immanent Justice – the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will happen immediately ▪ From 7-10 yrs old, children are in transition showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some stages of the second 2. Autonomous Morality – becomes aware with the rules and laws created by people, and in judging an action they consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences ▪ 10 yrs and older ▪ Intentions are considered o Conscience – refers to an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integration of all three components of moral development