Psychology of Learning - Summary PDF

Resumo - Psychology of Learning ✅ ✅ 1)​ Introduction to educational psychology ✅ 2)​ Human Cognition and behaviour I: Memory...

Resumo - Psychology of Learning ✅ ✅ 1)​ Introduction to educational psychology ✅ 2)​ Human Cognition and behaviour I: Memory ✅ 3)​ Human Cognition and behaviour II: Self regulated learning ✅ 4)​ Human Cognition and behaviour III: Motivation ✅ 5)​ Human Cognition and behaviour IV: Emotions ✅ 6)​ Instructional design principles ✅ 7)​ Instructional design: Gamification ✅ 8)​ Instructional design: Adaptive learning ✅ 9)​ Assessment and feedback with AI ✅ 10)​Evaluating the effectiveness of AI based systems I 11)​Evaluating the effectiveness of AI based systems II 1)​ INTRO TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ​ From philosophy to Modern educational psychology origin of psychology → 370 BC Plato, Aristotle and co: psyche = soul, Logos = science all knowledge is innate, we are born with, but can be perfected over time through learning. Aim of education is welfare of society and the well-being of the individual. It should help us fill assigned roles with ability and purpose. → Late 1600 John Locke: We learn from external forces. We have a Waxtablet. We learn and build more complex knowledge by associations and reflection. Aspect of active learning. “Empiricism”. → Late 1600 John Comenius: the first to say that each age has it´s ideal learning approach. learning should be an engaging and enjoyable thing → Late 1800 Johann Friedrich Herbart: introduced lesson planning, structured methods of knowing what to teach. Also pointed out the relevance of motivation, that learning should be engaging and make people curious. Theory of apperception → that we learn by relating new info to what we already know. → Late 1900 Wilhelm Wundt: Father of modern psychology. performed the first psychological research in controlled conditions. introduced the idea of “methods” → Late 1900 Lev Vygotsky: The one who came up with the “Zone of proximal development” and “Scaffolding”. idea that we are social beings and learning can never be taken aways from that context. → Late 2000 Jean Piaget and Co. : Cognitive Psychology: renewed interest in cognitive psychology (memory, attention, learning, problem solving. Models that explain internal information processes) VS. behavioral psychology. Piaget introduction topics like “schemas”, “assimilation”, “stages of cognitive development” ​ The nature of educational Psychology Educational psychology = an applied branch of psychology. It applies knowledge of general psychology in teaching and learning! It's the scientific study of how people learn. Focuses on understanding cognitive, emotional and social processes around it. ​ AI in Education and the Role of Educational Psychology With the development of technology since the late 1990’s there has been a rise of tools that allow for personalized learning, data analytics, adaptive learning, mobile learning and more recently with the Pandemic and AI hype remote teaching and application of AI and machine learning in personalized learning However still during the breakthrough…. Intelligent Tutoring Systems still not Widespread… still ways to go… ISSUE: many times tech develops without checking in with psychological knowledge about learning. And therefore, do not always accommodate for the best option. More focus on innovation and tech itself rather than in the principles of education and psychology/ real human learning needed. EX: could implement the zone of proximal development method / scaffolding psychology can make tech more useful, effective, provide correct feedback, see the different needs between individuals, most useful techniques and adequate measurements  2)​ HUMAN COGNITION AND BEHAVIOR (I - IV) I) Memory models & Knowledge acquisition ​ Relevant terms: ○​ Encoding = transforming sensory input into a storable form (taking the input from our sensory system and encoding it in) ○​ Storage = Maintaining information over time ○​ Retrieval = remembering things that were encoded in long term memory/ Accessing stored information when needed ○​ Attention = focusing on relevant information → Attention brings things from the environment to the working memory. → Learning brings them to Long term Memory ○​ Working memory = for holding and manipulating information temporarily ○​ Long-term memory = storage of info over a longer period of time ​ Memory models: ○​ The Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) just differentiates types three types of memory: Sensory Memory, Short term memory and Long term memory. sensory input, when paid attention to, goes to short term memory. When info goes unrehearsed, it gets lost (generally can only keep up to 7 items Miller) With encoding it goes to long term memory. Some of this can be lost with time (Or is it just that we can’t remember?) Ultra-short memory is the sensory. STM can be “consciousness”, hold info that your thinking about ○​ Working Memory Model (Baddley & Hitch, 1974) more detail into each FACT: STM has limited capacity. There are 4 components of the Long term memory model. each one has a function in encoding info into long term memory. Has limited capacity. -​ Phonological loop - processa info verbal e sons -​ Episodic Buffer - integra info dos subsystems/ components e memory -​ Visuospatial sketchpad - imagens mentais, manges visual and spatial data -​ Central executive - control center, directs attention  ○​ Cognitive load theory (John Sweller, 1988) About information in the temporary storage - short term or working memory Processing information takes effort. If it becomes too much we don’t learn 3 types: Intrinsic load true difficult from the material itself Extraneous load Load caused by (poorly) designed instructions Germane load Effort needed to process and understand material (steer bc sometimes you want people to think more deeply or not) GOAL OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN = minimize extraneous load, while optimizing and steering intrinsic and germane load….. ○​ Long term memory we assume has unlimited capacity!!! stores memory for extend periods, potentially indefinitely Explicit memory (episodic and semantic AKA events and knowledge) Implicit memory (Procedural aka skills & actions + Emotional conditioning) ​ Transfer to long-term memory: long term memory stores everything in Networks retrieving ← Working/Short term ←→ Long term memory → encoding ​ limited/ subject to cognitive load Unlimited ○​ Elaboration - establishing connections (additions, expanding network) ○​ Organisation - structure and organize, work on existing networks ( not elaborate, just connect, more knobs) ○​ Verification - structure and critically examine networks (groups, checking conclusions) ​ What is learning? ○​ active process - active engagement is necessary, explore, interact, ○​ build on prior knowledge - always builds on and modifies what you already know. key element of future learning ○​ it's a social activity! that involves interactions with people, culture etc ○​ requires sustained motivation and cognitive engagement ​ Learning theories ○​ Information processing theory: Focuses on the cognitive process of learning. How people process Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer & moreno, 2003) Each sense picks up info from the multimedia presentation (sensory registry) and takes it to the Working memory. There the verbal and pictorial models of what happened + prior knowledge gets processed and integrated and so enter Long term memory not everything gets selected, decide on what sounds and images to pick up ○​ Behaviorist theory (learning from behaviour, Classical conditioning: (Pawlow, 1890) Dog thing…. bell alone does nothing but the association and consequent conditioning has taken place so that it salivated with the bell… that’s learning learning through association. Neutral stimulus (bell) paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) leads to a conditioned response (salivation) Unconditioned Vs Conditioned response: uma eh neutra e a outra eh learned after repeated pairings Generalization and Discrimination: Dentist situation can become fear of all doctors > spread to similar stimuli (aqui eh discrim) (Generalization) Operant conditioning: learning through consequences (Skinner, 1938) behavior is shaped by reward or punishments! if Positive consequences. = repeats it if Negative consequences = less likely Negative punishment → Take away smth good removing positive thing after bad behaviour ex: no Tv for a week after missed curfew Positive punishment → Give smth bad Give negative feedback to bad attitude. a child feels pain if they touch a hot stove. Less likely to do it again, behaviour weakend Positive Reinforcement → Give smth good Give positive feedback to positive attitude. buy something and get credit, strengthen behavior, you want to go there again. Negative Reinforcement → take away something bad Removing something bad. taking pills takes away the pain - relief strengthens behavior of taking pills Reinforcement schedules (Skinner, 1938) describe how often and under what conditions reinforcement or punishment is needed do influence behavior VR Variable-Ratio Schedule slot machine, reinforcement happens after variabel numbers of actions -​ high steady behavior, resistant to extinction, encourages most the desired behaviour FI Fixed-ratio Schedule paid after assembling 10 products, reinforcement happens after fixed number -​ high steady, but with brief pause after reinforcement  VI Variable-interval Schedule Random checks of homework, R given after variable amount of time -​ slow, steady state of response, resistant to extinction FI FIxed-Interval Schedule Paycheck, reinforcement given after fixed time (independe de repeticoes) -​ pause after reinforcement and increase when it approaches again no fixed sempre cai logo depois do check, no variable eh steady. Dps de número de acao eh o mais eficaz que dps de numero de tempo (independente de ações) ○​ Social-cognitive theory: Observational Learning (Bandura, 1974) ​ ​ we don't need to learn everything individually > we copy other people Reciprocal Determinism - an individual’s behaviour is influenced by personal factors - like emotions and cognition and environment (and also influences it back) Simple observation + processing - teaches you how to do it on your own 2 phases: 1)​ Acquisition phase = observation, storage and retention 2)​ Execution phase = reproduction, motivation and reinforcement (external ou internal) ​ Learning environments - determined the framework, approach to it ○​ Constructivist - problem oriented, exploratory learning (Vc msmo constroi) ○​ Cognitivist - direct instruction (te dizem) II) Self regulated Learning ​ Concept definition → learning = the acquisition and processing of novel information through practice, observation, or other experiences + Integrating it with existing knowledge. → External instruction = traditional learning, teacher guiding and having 100% control. TUM schedule, lecture topic are things determined externally by regulators → SELF REGULATED LEARNING = learner manages and takes control of their own learning by setting goals, selecting and using strategies, monitoring progress and adjusting behavior to achieve goals. 3 key elements: 1)​ LEARNING: activities that involve acquiring knowledge 2)​ REGULATION: process in which current state is compared to goal and discrepancies motivate actions aimed at reducing them 3)​ SELF: individual´s initiative in setting and achieving personal goals (can be related to external factors like the day of the test but self motivated to score above 1.7) ! NOT a learning strategy! but a process and overarching framework! → Example strategies that help you achieve SRL goal: -​ Cognitive S.: rehearsal, elaboration, remembering, flash cards, writing -​ Metacognitive S.: self monitoring, planning, inner voice to monitor yourself -​ Motivational: work on will power, believing in yourself, bring energy -​ Behavioral: block time for studying, time management -​ Environmental: minimize distractions ​ there is no single best one, depends on where you’re at with the topic, different tools ​ 3 Models of self-regulated learning: ○​ Zimmerman’s Cyclical Model of SRL (Zimmerman) ​ ​ SRL as feedback loop where planning, monitoring, and evaluating constantly influence each other. -​ possible to be in different loops with different topics at the same time -​ 1. Forethought: create a plan, set goals -​ 2. Performance = start doing it,a sk for help -​ 3. Self reflection= see how far your´ve come and adjust (then FT agin where adjust strategy and goal) ​ ​  ○​ Winne and Hadwin’s Model of SRL (Winne and Hadwin) learning as an information-processing activity Learners are active participants that monitor learning through cognitive (summarization) and metacognitive (monitoring, think about how they are learning) strategies. (more detailed than Zimmerman’s) → about FLOW OF INFO start with Goals and subgoals. Previous knowledge then influences it. You then choose tactics and strategies and then see the products of said actions.You then internally monitor and adjust beliefs, goals and tactics. If there is an external way to get feedback it will happen based on your performance. Which darts the process again. → internal feedback plays big role : constantly reassessing and adjusting ( key cognitive regulation process) → COGNITIVE model: bc it's about how learners process, store and retrieve info during tasks. Continuously assessing how new info has been processed and choosing the correct strategies ○​ Boekaerts’ Dual Processing Model of SRL about how people regulate academic goals and emotional well-being (first to talk about coping) Two pathways: - Mastery pathway: maximizing learning achieve academic objective, when you have to do something and are “in the mood” for it, feel capable, then you apply a learning strategy and go into mastery mode. Focus on growth and skill acquisition - Well-being (coping) pathway: protect emotional well being if not in the mood for maximizing learning- feeling incapable - then you apply a coping strategy like trying to avoid it, to minimize discomfort, reduce stress - and go into coping mode Dynamic adaptation/ adaptive balance: we can adapt depending on the perception of the situation. Balance well being with learning goals.  ○​ Boekaert’s Three layers of regulation (Boekaert) - Self regulation as a Multi-layered process that you go back and forth between > Regulation of self: outside: setting goals and resources you have >Regulation of learning process: middle: use of metacognitive skills, monitoring, adjustments > Regulation of Processing Modes: inner: what you do, choice of cognitive strategies activities need to be accessories in the innermost layer in order to be learning! but setting goals is also necessary. need both. ​ Impact of SRL on learning and performance outcomes SLR has a high impact on cognitive outcomes - increases ability to process info effectively! → better apply metacognitive strategies like planning and monitoring and evaluating → que leva a better understanding and retention of content -​ also engage in deeper learning, making better connections Vs só memorizing -​ become better at choosing the right strategy, more meaningful, positive outcome Academic performance is generally improved by SRL consistently achieve better outcomes. Across all disciplines (García-Ros et al., 2023) Tudo conectado… strategies → self efficacy: 2 way street, se vc acredita q vc eh bom em math e dai perform bem vc só perform melhor. Which reduces stress and procrastination. has to be realistic though  ○​ training to be better at SRL? YES Overall positive outcomes - SRL high effective, very worthwhile. -​ in academic performance, being better at applying strategies ​ Self-regulated learning in the age of AI ○​ Challenges: is AI doing the work for us? Don´t make connections lack of metacognition, decreased reflection, dependency, passive engagement, surface level learning, weak self monitoring, mental laziness … all that's contrary to SRL (research, read, analyze, write, revise VS perguntar e copiar) → AI tools influence all elements of Hadwin´s model! → how to create tools that support and enhance SRL? → even for setting goals… need to develop skills…. poor self reflection ○​ AI need to take into account central learning principles ○​ Learn how to effectively integrate AI tools into learning! So that's beneficial extras: What is cognition? encoding, storage, transformation, retrieval of Info. Learning = encoding info Memory = storage of information → DYNAMIC Process Knowledge = representation of info III) Motivation and learning from a psychological perspective ​ Intro: key terms and definitions ○​ Motivation = a state, current status, situativ, translates motive into action Motivation is the reason for initiation, direction, persistence and intensity of goal-directed behaviour -​ several internal and external indicators of motivation ○​ Motive = a tait, enduring disposition, factor that explains striving for a goal 3 basic motives (David McClelland): 1)​ Power (control, reputation) 2) Achievement ( development, challenge) 3) Affiliation Motive (friendship, positive) ​ Theoretical Frameworks of Motivation: ○​ Expectancy- Value theory (Eccles, 1983) ​ ​ M=ExW Motivation = expectancy of success X value placed on the task probability of success X utility of outcomes both things need to be high! motivation (k) is mediated by expectations for success (i) and subjective task value (j)  green: internal processes like experiences as a child, memories, emotions, personal attributes influence both expectations and perceived value. yellow: external influences like culture, parents and teachers also shape believes which in the end shape motivation ○​ Action-Theoretical Model of Motivation (Heckhausen, 1977) ​ ​ ​ The interaction (3) of their personal needs (1), motives and goals interacts with the situation (2) which leads to Action , then outcomes and in turn lead to consequences ○​ Attribution Theory (Heidler Weiner, 1977) about how people interpret the cause of their success or failure - which influences their emotions and motivations to engage in future tasks - given an event you carry out attribution processes, that can be internal. external, more or less stable or more or less controllable. - this affects expectancy of future events and the Affect (emotion) towards it. → which leads to motivation or lack thereof in the future → when focus is on INTERNAL, CONTROLLABLE and SPECIFIC attributions, we can boost motivation and persistence. Better outcomes → “I need to try a different study method” internal stable global A = I lack intelligence VS. Specif A = I lack mathematical ability internal unstable global A = I am exhausted VS. specific A = I´m fed up with math external stable global = this exam is unfair VS. specific = math exams are unfair external unstable A = unluck day, friday the 13th Vs. specific = Nr 13 showed in my exam ​ Types of Motivation and Basic needs ○​ Intrinsic Vs Extrinsic (qualities of) motivation Intrinsic = behavior is rewarding, exciting, interesting in of itself -​ object centered + activity specific  Extrinsic = consequences as incentives for behavior: praise may increase activity, negative feedback reduces it. Incentive OUTSIDE task. extrinsic state of motivation! -​ external evaluations, social, material, jobrelated → more recent studies found: more layers to extrinsic motivation! Definido por highest to lowest self determination needed ↑↑↑ Intrinsic Regulation = 100% intrinsically motivated! super self determined ↑↑ Integrated Regulation = quite rewarding if you do it a rewarding way ↑ Identified Regulation = not fully rewarding but if you set a goal you are mildly self-determ. ↓ Introjected Regulation = not rewarding in itself, social norms “ a good student should do” ↓↓ External Regulation = no self determination, totally external te mandado ○​ Self determination theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci, 2017) Basic psychological needs that lead to self-determination-based / Intrinsic motivation are: 1)​ Competence: feeling capable 2)​ Autonomy: freedom of choice 3)​ Social connectedness/ Relatedness: meaningful connections ○​ VS. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow) Pyramid of 5 needs. Physiological needs that predermine deficit and growth. Biological factors. the 3 basic psychological needs for intrinsic /self-determined motivations lies in the top: self actualization  ○​ Concept of flow (Csíkszentmihályi, 1885) -​ flow = mental state in which a person is fully immersed in an activity. between boredom and anxiety Experiencing: -​ deep focus, sense of control over activity -​ intrinsic enjoyment -​ loss of self-consciousness, sense of timelessness ​ Key drivers of Learner Engagement: ○​ Interest (Krapp, 1998) -​ interest = psychological state of engagement + enduring predisposition to re engage -interaction between person and learning situation with positive resonance then - if you have situational interest over one thing and then do it a many times more (enter actualized state) it becomes your individual interest (enduring) -​ four-phase model of interest development (Hidi & Renniner, 2006) how it goes from being externally triggered to become internally driven  ○​ Theory of Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977) ideia de que beliefs about your capacity about one task positively affect your motivation (behavior and performance) -​ more self efficacy = take on morre challenging tasks = persist more = achieve more -​ low self-efficacy = leads to avoidance of tasks, less effort and low success “ I can do this in this situation” ○​ Self- Concept Broader beliefs about your identity, traits, and abilities across various domains 3 key components: 1)​ Cognitive: what you think about yourself “I'm smart” 2)​ Affective: how you feel about yourself (self worth, self esteem) 3)​ Behavioral: how perception influences behavior (aligns with perceived strengths) “ This is what I think of myself, my traits and abilities in general” IV) Emotional Conditions for learning ​ Emotions = complex psychological states that involve 3 components: 1)​ Subjective experience (how we feel9 2)​ Physiological response ( bodily reactions) 3)​ Behavioral expression (how we act and people see) -​ Serve adaptive functions (survival, communication, decision making) -​ Qualia * Other mind’s problem in Philosophy - Can we conceptualize emotions? Hypothetical constructs ○​ the still face experiment (Edward Tronick) -​ emotional responses start early in life and are shaped by social interactions + help us navigate social interactions + forms connections -​ experiment shows that: emotional disruptions affect social bonds and interactions (from an early age) -​ emotions as a social process: self regulation, evoques emotional responses in others ​ Emotions as Behavioral control mechanisms ○​ Parts of the brain: -​ Brain stem - basic needs Automatic responses, inflexible. Controls behavior to fulfill basic vital needs = thirsty, hungry → stimulus, activating, behavior -​ Limbic system - Emotions Stimulus activates emotional responses as behaviors, Not rigidly coupled, different/ same S lead to different or same B/E Stimulus → Behavior → behavioral outcome → Emotion  -​ (Neo)Cortex - control through cognitively represented goals representation and mental simulation of (future oriented) goals those mental representations can trigger emotions pride for ex: need mental representation bc otherwise you can't know when you’ve achieved it. Causes emotions and behaviors ​ Emotions and their causes (Scherer, 1993) Emotions are reactions to evaluations of (external or internal) stimulus that manifest in an episode of temporal synchronization across the organism's subsystems ○​ Feelings = subsystems of emotions ○​ Affect = brief intense emotional state, strong behavioral tendency ○​ Mood = longer, less intense emotional state, decoupled from trigger event ○​ 6 Basic emotions (Paul Ekman) universal across all cultures. Biologic basis. Have specific facial expressions and physical reactions. Disgust Surprise Fear/Anxiety Sadness Anger/irritation Joy/happiness ○​ Dimensional Model (Russel, 1980) Circumplex model describes more emotions based on 2 axes: Arousal and valence (De)activated (Un)pleasant level of activation if its positive or negative continuous dimensions…. each one can me described by a specific level of arousal and valence ​ Interindividual preferences - not all emotions trigger the same emotions in all people. Our emotional and cognitive learning histories shape emotions in personal ways. That is influenced by: ○​ Innate geral tendencies: 1)​ personality influences differences on personality shape emotional responses -​ Temperament: innate -​ Emotional reactivity: neuroticism, extraversion, determine intensity -​ Emotion regulation strategies :suppression, amplification, rumination  ○​ Emotional learning experiences: 2)​ Emotional learning history -​ Conditioned responses: past experiences shape reactions -​ Emotional Associations: repeated exposure with emotional links -​ Emotional Memory: emotional events like trauma impact future situat. -​ Learned coping: learned strategies based on emotional history 3)​ Cognitive learning history -​ Problem solving approaches: cog. strategies learned over time affect emotional reactions to challenges -​ Cognitive biases: history of success leads to optimism as cognit. bias -​ Schemas: cognitive frameworks guide emotional processing of new information ex. if you think raised voices with conflict, then you get stressed at any loud conversation even if it's harmless ​ Emotions and their impact on learning and knowledge acquisition ○​ Cognitive turn (70’s) - increased interest in mental processes “how you feel is how you learn” - emotion play a role in teaching and learning for only a few years, before were not greatly considered ○​ Key Findings: 1)​ Positive emotions (joy curiosity) promote learning and Negative (fear and boredom) inhibit it 2)​ Emotion improve memory (remember emotional events the best) 3)​ Moderate stress can be helpful (more attention, too much eh harmful) 4)​ Emotional intelligence is important 5)​ teaching strategies that evoke emotions (storytelling) are efficient and better remembered 6)​ teacher’s emotions influence student’s (motivation) ○​ Model by (Edlinger & Hascher, 2008) both positive and negative emotions mediate motivation, mood, perceived relevance etc and that affects academic learning and outcomes +​ intensity of the emotion directly mediates motivation  ○​ Successful acquisition of knowledge: Emotions influence knowledge acquisition in 2 ways: 1)​ as the prerequisite for it, how you go into it 2)​ during the learning itself, how you work with and process it BECAUSE: -​ Emotions lead to changes in motivation: if positive mood = work longer on tasks negative mood = avoidance system -​ Emotions also influence the amount of cognitive resources you have available if you think there are a lot of consequences to be faced, then you don't process a task correctly, have less capacity for it emotions → perception and accuracy: attention, limits which stimuli and with what accuracy they transfer from sensory memory to short term memory. positive = more with greater accuracy negative = less with less accuracy also risk of over focusing on negative things so they don't harm you Emotions → trigger automatic behavioral tendencies -​ if positive mood = think that you already have everything you need, keep the behaviours you are already doing, process it increasingly automatic -​ if negative mood = think you cannot resolve a new situation with existing behavior. Increased reflexivity! Emotions → activation and modification of existing knowledge Either knowledge or Stimulus driven processing (save new knowledge or new Stimuli) -​ if positive = more knowledge driven! more likely to search for existing knowledge that fits what you’re currently learning. More playful, open -​ if negative = more stimulus driven processing, Think that existing knowledge does not fit. More problem focused thinning, linear, logical Emotions → implementation of behavioral Intentions → tunneling function Positive = increasing degree of excitation, lower shielding (against distracting stimuli) negative = independent degree of excitation, shielding maintained over longer period of time  3)​ INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (I - III) I) introduction to instructional design principles ​ Product design: ○​ Design = communication conduit between object and user. Good design leads to intuitive use → reduces errors and emphasizes usability over aesthetics ○​ Blame the user Vs blaming the design….. Lack of intuitive guidance, what to do and how to do it…. ○​ 7 principles of intuitive design: (Norman) 1)​ Discoverability - easy to figure out what actions are possible. ter escrito “learn more” “sign up” moodle: clear layouts, progress indicators, icons and visual cues 2)​ Understanding - make them immediately understand what everything means and how to use it. Saber de cara o que essas actions fazem. Clarity. Moodle: clear module introductions, instructions for activities, consistent terminology 3)​ Affordances - buttons “afford” presing, look clearly interactive 4)​ Signifiers - handle signifies pull, plate signifies push Moodle: clickable buttons for quizzes and submissions labeled “start quiz” , Labels and icons 5)​ Constraints - Setting limits to what users can do -​ Physical, Cultural (meaning red light), Semantic (associations based on context) and Logical (rheinfolgen) Moodle: Sequenced unlocking, Disabling inappropriate options (gray out “Submit” until all fields are done), Timed assessments 6)​ Feedback - barulho de click da câmera - comunicação dos resultados da ação, should be immediate and intuitive. No ambiguity Moodle: Immediate quiz feedback, Progress indicators, Personalized feedback on assignments 7)​ Mappings - fogão q match com botões - relação clara entre controles e results/ actions. Aligning controls and functions Moodle: Navigation that mirrors learning flow (arranged in logical sequence), Interactive elements with clear functions ​ Introduction to key concepts in instructional design ○​ Goal of instructional design = make interactions intuitive and clear for learners → Norman´s principles of intuitive design also apply → make educational content discoverable, understandable and learner-centered → borrows from cognitive psychology + UX design (learner exp. design)  ○​ Definition = the entire process of analyzing needs and goals and creating educational experiences/systems that effectively support and enhance learning. It involves structuring content, choosing strategies, and organizing materials in way that keeps learning accessible, engaging and impactful → systematic process that involves: identifying and determining goals, defining needs, developing strategies,assessing outcomes and evaluating if goal and needs are met ​ Leveraging Cognitive principles in Instructional Design pensar em como juntar os design principles and cognitive theories ○​ Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Sweller, 1988) -​ we learn most effectively when ID aligns with the brain’s capacity of processing information without overloading it! -​ Goal: instructional design should balance intrinsic load by simplifying material + maximize germane load ↑ Germane load = maximize processing new info, integrating with previous info, we want this so that it’s ingrained and encoded in LTM and not only WM ↓ Extraneous load = minimize distracts WM from processing new information! Not wanted intrinsic load = simplify/balance try to simplify the complexity of the task -​ Key Findings: we learn best when 1)​ instruction is tailored to existing knowledge and skills 2)​ examples for new content 3)​ there’s a gradual increase in independent problem solving 4)​ cognitive load is reduced by excluding non-essential information (Redundancy effect) 5)​ essential information is presented cohesively 6)​ Dual coding → use both visual and auditory channels to present complex information ○​ Cognitive Model of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 1999) -​ blueprint for how to structure multimedia elements to maximize learning outcomes and reduce cognitive load -​ Evidence-based! well design multimedia can indeed enhance learning when paired with cognitive processes  -​ Key assumptions: 1)​ Dual-channel processing: we process info through visual and auditory channels 2)​ Limited capacity: each channel has limited capacity. Conciseness is key 3)​ Active processing: only learn when actively select, organize and integrate info to existing knowledge -​ Characteristics of good multimedia instructional design: 1)​ Dual Coding presenting words and visuals together strengthens understanding 2)​ Segmenting and Sequencing: breaking content into manageable chunks prevents overload. Fases que aparecem uma de cada vez 3)​ Signaling: ​ ​ focus on key info by highlighting it. Gray out o resto q nao eh o foco 4)​ Coherence principles: remove extraneous info that is not strictly necessary, avoids distractions and overload. Simplificar o desenho do coração 5)​ Spatial Contiguity Principle: place text next to the figure. Sem legenda, melhor por junto mesmo ​ Keep in mind: -​ design principles apply to products and to instructional design - intuitive and engaging -​ Effective instruction = align usability with learning goals. Use design principles to make use more effective and avoid errors -​ ID should ↓ cognitive load by: simplifying intrinsic load, reducing extraneous load and increasing germane load. Using signaling, Segmenting and Coherence principles -​ Optimal multimedia design involves dual coding, coherence, signaling, segmenting and sequencing. Emphasis on correctly structuring content. -​ Iterative design → continuously refine and rethink and adjust maximizes usability and anpassung às need dos learners II) Gamification: Instructional design to enhance learner engagement: ​ Intro to gamification Definitions = design activities q nao sao games com aspectos de games pra ↑ engagement Gamification applies game mechanics and elements to non-game contexts to enhance motivation and engagement ! (Kapp, 2012) (☆2002... ↑2010) or Gamification is a process of designing activities in a non-game context in a playful way by using game design elements (Sailer, 2016) Regular game = 100% entertainment focus Serious Games = main goal is support learning/Training. A self-contained tool. O jogo é o principal. Ex: simulador de voo Gamification= applies game elements into non-game contexts real life things transformed with game elements to increase motivation ex: leaderboards, badges, points…. ​ Types of gamification: ○​ Structural gamification: add elements “around” pre existing content. Goal: motivate to go trough levels, rewards serve as incentives/ motivators Ex: progress bars, badges, level up ○​ Content gamification: elements are “inside” the content. Includes storytelling, challenges and feedback loops. (can also include badges and rewards) Goal: make tasks feel purposeful and adventurous Ex: duolingo com os characters e systematic feedback !!!! diferente de serious games!!! SG are broader in scope, complex game environment, eh o educational material em si. CG enhances existing educational material. ​ Theoretical foundations of gamification most used are theories of motivation and affect: Self determination and Flow ○​ Self determination theory (SDT)(Ryan & Deci, 2017) 1)​ Autonomy: let them choose and explore. Freedom to make decisions.  2)​ Competence: include progress mechanics like points, levels and badges + Skill growth through gradual progression in difficulty to make them feel capable ex: level progression 3)​ Relatedness: via social features and interaction - create communities, multiplayer mode, leaderboards, group challenges. Compete against friends, Kahoot → 3 needed for intrinsic motivation → in games: explore the 3 basic psychological needs to ensure (intrinsic) motivation ○​ Flow Theory ((Csikszentmihalyi, 1985) flow state. being fully immersed in activity, between anxiety and boredom. → In games: find balance between creating a challenge but being in accord to their skill level + provide immediate feedback -​ progress mechanics keep people in the flow state (avoid frustration and boredom) -​ remove distractions and provide a sense of purpose! ○​ Theory of gamified learning (Landers, 2014) About relationship of game characteristics and ability to influence mediating variables of learning outcomes. - Mediating process tough C - Moderating process through A directly → the content itself moderates the outcome → Game Characteristics (D) and instructional content (A) both influence behavior and attitude (C) → which mediates the learning outcomes ​ Effectiveness of gamification Key findings from meta-analyses: advantage of gamification! -​ statistically significant positive effect size of g = 0.822 results for gamification- → the younger the students, the better the results, effect is highest in science class, lowest in business, the longer the experience the better (full semester), Hybrid are better than online-only → Gamification drives engagement and motivation (moderates academic performance) → Positive effect on learning outcomes: knowledge retention and acquisition  ​ Risks of gamification ○​ Risk of overjustification effect - undermining intrinsic motivation badges, level ups and points may diminish intrinsic motivation and overfocus on external rewards /motivation. ○​ Risk of design complexity: some elements can de-motivate learners…. Leaderboards te desmotivam se você está no final…. por isso: elements must align with learner 's needs! poor design can frustrate and hinder goals!!! ​ Different types of knowledge and respective gamification techniques Type of Definition Instructional Gamification Examples knowledge strategies elements Declarative Facts, jargon, Elaboration, Narrative, Sorting, Trivia quiz for knowledge acronyms. Must be Organization, Matching, historical facts memorized. Repetition Replayability Conceptual group of ideas, metaphoric devices, Matching and Sorting shapes in a Knowledge events, object that examples and not sorting, math game. Whats have a common set examples with experience the is part of that of attributes attribute classification concept concept and what to know what's part is not of it and what's not Rules-based Rules with Examples, role play Experience Board games, knowledge parameters and consequences of simulated work therefore X behavior an see tasks predictable results if follow rules Procedural Step by step See what the bigger Practice, Data miner, Knowledge instructions for path is, what in Software software scenarios performing a task general needs to be challenges procedure… leonard and then go 1 by 1 Soft Skills non sequential Analogies, role Social simulator Leadership guidelines for playing simulation dealing with social interactions Psychomotor intersection of Observe,physically Demonstrations Virtual surgery Domain physical skills and practice simulator (serious cognitive game) knowledge → Keep in mind: 1)​ Why does gamification work? because it aligns with theories of motivation! like self determination theory and Flow theory 2)​ There are 2 types of gamification → Structural (add to existing content) and Content gamification (embed into tasks) 3)​ What are the effects of gamification? increase motivation and therefore learning outcomes, especially for younger, longer science classes. needs to be adapted to type of knowledge + personalized learning + more efficient (30% less time) 4)​ Challenge: requires high quality data and algorithms…. III) Adaptive Learning: instructional design to enhance learner engagement II tailoring instructions to meet learner´s diverse needs ​ Challenges of Traditional learning (teacher- centered) ○​ One-size-fit all approach: linear and stric sequence nao importa onde q o learner está + fixed pace > boredom, confusion or frustration! ○​ Surface level evaluations > provas que veem short term memory e não entendimento pre se ○​ Absence of feedback > no personalized, actionable insights about own knowledge ​ Basic of Adaptive Learning: (student-centered / collaborative learning) ○​ Adaptive learning definition (Martin et al., 2016) “a process that dynamically adjusts the way instructional content is presented to learners. It's based on their comprehension of the material as revealed by their responses.” Content and Process Adaptation! adapt Inhalt da aula to current level of understanding, mais ou menos avançado + uso de métodos diferentes ex multimedia instead of text only Adaptive learning platforms = “software that personalized learning by using AI and machine learning techniques to adapt the learning path offered to an individual learner in real time” The support of learning in an adaptive learning platform can be: STATIC: same type and and intensity of support for all ADAPTABLE: learners can choose and adjust how much they want it (hint) ADAPTIVE: support is given (chosen by teacher or system) ○​ Typical constraints: 1) Class size (1 pra 30… overwhelming) 2) Time constraints (mto time consuming ir de 1 em 1) 3) Diversity in learners (cad aum progresses differently… hard to keep up with everyone without additional tools to do so) --------> here is where EdTech can help! ○​ What do learners differ in? (Plass & Pawar, 2020) Learning Prerequisites prior knowledge and skills Learning Processes approaches and pace  ○​ Types of adaptive learning: 1)​ Self paced -​ Ve conteúdo no pace dele. -​ faz um SUMMATIVE assesment de todo conteúdo com immediate feedback do que acertou e errou. -​ Se enough estiverem certas desbloqueia o próximo nível 2)​ Adaptive at the content level -​ Ve conteúdo inteiro no pace dele -​ Faz SUMMATIVE assessment -​ Recebe explicação específica de pq ele errou + indicações de onde rever a matéria necessária 3)​ Adaptive ate the assessment level -​ Ve conteúdo inteiro no pace dele -​ Faz SUMMATIVE assessment -​ Pra cada pergunta errada, recebe uma mais fácil -​ Pra cada pergunta certa, recebe uma mais difícil 4)​ Adaptive at both the Assessment and Content level -​ Answer FORMATIVE assessment (to monitor and improve learning, applied continuously) -​ Receive tailor-made learning plan -​ dps faz um SUMMATIVE assessment -​ results informam new learning plan 5)​ Adaptive assessment & content with high granularity -​ responder pergunta por pergunta explicando pq tomou each step -​ recebe feedback comparando os steps q ele tomou com os da professora -​ performance determina a dificuldade das próximas questões ​ 3 key systems that make adaptive learning effective: Scaffolding, feedback and guided reflexion ○​ Scaffolding: -​ Targeted support and and structuring of learning process -​ Ter uma ajuda que no começo guia e vai gradually diminuindo pra allow for uso independente das new skills -​ Ex: prompt com tipps 6 hints -​ O goal eh fazer com que ele treine atividades na ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Vygotsky, 1980) só consegue fazer se tiver uma forma inicial de ajuda  ○​ Feedback: -​ give target cognitive feedback on learning process to help students progress to next level ​ ​ ​ ​ 3 ways of feedback structure: ​ ​ FEED UP → about objectives, give hints to where we want to go ​ ​ FEEDBACK→ about progress, what's the current situation ​ ​ FEED FORWARD → next steps, how to improve and in what way 4 ways of giving the 3 types of feedback PRODUCT PROCESS SELF SELF LEVEL LEVEL LEVEL CONTROL LEVEL info sobre info eh sobre o info on jeitos de info eh sobre as correctness of way in which a refletir sobre o características solution task has been seu progresso pessoais da processed so pessoa far for easy tasks for difficult task for advanced usually not learners effective! not informative ○​ Guided reflexion and self-evaluation -​ Guider reflection and self-evaluation of one´s own learning success -​ o gola eh processar mais profundamente o q vc tem na short term memory e facilitar a passagem para ong term memory. (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). -​ Ligado à self-regulated learning. Refletir faz parte do ciclo. Plan, execute, reflect ♲ ​ Challenges of adaptive learning systems 4) ASSESSMENT AND FEEDBACK WITH AI ​ Foundations of Educational Assessment ○​ Educational Measurement measure = quantifying learners knowledge levels by assigning numbers to phenomena based on a defined scale Usually done by comparing current state/ measured quantity to known benchmark ○​ Subjective judgment Vs Measurement ↓ ↓ different between subjects Objective and comparable hard to compare or quantify Based on conventions, definitions scale unit is unclear and conventions ​ ​ ​ ​ Standardized units ○​ Evaluating Quality of Measurements: check for the properties of the measurement instrument ​ Reliability: Is it the person´s real skills? Ensure accurate measurement of the real knowledge. → amongst the observed variance of tests, reliability is the true variance and not the error variance !!!! (error variance has to be minimal, makes it unreliable) the test always captures the same result when conducted. 80 nuk dia e 70 no outro tá errado se seu knowledge nao mudou…. ​ Validity: se vc ta measuring what you want to know! The correct topic and the correct knowledge type. Algebra test is valid if it measures your addition and subtraction skills! → aligns with knowledge it aims to asses ​ ​ ​ 3 types of validity: 1)​ Content validity: should cover all relevant aspects of subject 2)​ Construct validity: the items ask for the right thing, measure the intended knowledge. A test about memorizing things does not assess creativity 3)​ Criterion validity: external benchmarks, other well known measures should be similar A: nao reliable, nao valid B: Valid mas não reliable C: Reliable mas não valid D: reliable e valid  ​ Robustness: se os resultados são consistentes e estáveis quando applied em condições (outra tests administration, time, format, location) e populações diferentes (pessoas com características diferentes tipo background e age) ​ Fairness: se nao tem desvantagens pra nenhum grupo por cause de características irrelevantes (gender ou ethnicity) ​ Generalizability: se os results podem ser applied pra outros contextos e populações ​ Sensitivity: se ele consegue detectar pequenas mudanças na sua performance… se de vdd seu conhecimento mudar se ele vai perceber ou não ○​ Testing: concept and types → is a measurement INSTRUMENT measuring is quantifying a skill or knowledge based on a predefined scale Reliability and validity asses the quality of the measurement a test is used as an instrument to perform measurements → “sub”instruments of testing include quizzes, exams, tasks etc → its purpose driven: measures a specific learning objective → follows a predefined structure: multiple choice, essay etc Testing types: 1)​ Formative Testing (law class) monitor learning, applied during the learning process, low stakes, identifies gaps and encourages improvement ex. weekly assignments or quizzes 2)​ Summative Testing (psychology) sees overall learning after class is over, summarizes what was learned so happens at the end of the unit and determines achievement. Usually high stakes, garding and accountability. Ex: final exam 3)​ Diagnostic Testing (espanhol pra ter por no nivel) identifies strengths, weaknesses and learning needs. Often before learning phase. Targets areas of difficulty. ex: math placement test ○​ Educational Assessments broader process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting test results/ evidence to understand learner progress and make decisions. Pode ser combinado teste de materiais diferentes pra pegar a bigger picture dos needs! → are strongly evidence based! with the results of quality instruments with high validity and reliability → ex: Pisa, worldwide assessment  You use a testing instrument with test items to gather evidence of learning. You do this to measure knowledge, aka, quantify the skills demonstrated in the test. You then conduct an assessments of the measurements, analyzing results to inform teaching ​ Construction of (Achievement) Tests ○​ Characteristics of GOOD ITEMS on a test: 1)​ Relevant: aligns with content and learning objectives 2)​ Clear: simple language, no ambiguity 3)​ Concise: no unnecessary details 4)​ Purposeful: tem um objetivo específico definido, recall, reason or analysis 5)​ Guiding but not leading ○​ ITEM formats: -​ multiple choice -​ Closed constructed response (caixa pra preencher de numero) -​ Open ended short response -​ Essay or extended response ○​ Types of test: 1)​ Achievement tests → measure knowledge on a specific subject 2)​ Diagnostic tests → identify strengths and weaknesses 3)​ Aptitude tests → assess aptitude/potential for future learning 4)​ Formative Tests → monitor progress during learning (law) 5)​ Summative Tests → Evaluate cumulative learning at end of unit 6)​ Criterion-referenced Test → compare performance to criteria (IELTS) 7)​ Norm-referenced tests → compare to border population ( IQ test) 8)​ Psychometric tests → assess psychological constructs (personality) A test can be a combination of test types!!! ○​ Phases of constructing a test: 1.​ Define Objectives: oq vc quer que eles saibam ou saibam fazer? 2.​ Develop a test blueprint/ table of specifications: identify topics and which ones are the most relevant ones. define a number of questions for each one aka focus. in what content areas should which cognitive levels be displayed? And distribute accordingly 3.​ Write items: consider different types of item format 4.​ Review and Revise + Pretest : check for bias, see clarity, difficulty,  ​ AI in Educational Assessment ○​ Examiner /Teacher perspective: → AI can help in test construction, test assembly and quality validation build test blueprints, process content and define the group items for blueprints + combine questions based on quality, content balance, and cognitive levels (Bloom´s taxonomy aka: levels of activities ex: remember, analyze, evaluate, create) + detects bias, inconsistencies or errors in tests like logical flaws, point out if its unbalanced ​ ​ → More efficient and quick then a person → reduces workload for teachers ​ ​ → have to aware of OVERRELIANCE = human oversight is still important → AI can help in Test administration & eventually ↑ Inclusivity ​ Online exams via moodle. Monitor test takers with AI. → AI can help in automated scoring and Feedback ​ make sure is consistent and tests are graded subjectively also real time insights about overall students performance, identifying trends and where most students make mistakes ○​ Learner/ Student perspective → AI can help with Personalization: adaptive assessments, specific gaps in knowledge, adjust difficulty in real time (could improve motivation) → Feedback can be given a any time (good for Self regulated learning) → Subjective and non-judgemental feedback 5) EFFECTIVENESS OF AI BASED SYSTEMS (I - II) ​ The Systematic Investigation Process in Psychological Research What is an experimental research design? → It's used to determine cause-effect/causal relationships between independent and dependent variables by conducting experiments. ​ What is the process of conducting experimental research? it follows a standardized and systemic approach 1) Define Variables 2) Formulate Research question and Hypothesis 3) Design and Conduct experiment (data collection) 4) Statistical Analysis 5) Interpret Results 6) Identify challenges and Mitigation strategies 7) Apply findings to improve Learning Process ​ Step 1: Defining Variables ○​ Independent Variables A CAUSA, a qual a gente vai intentionally manipular, queremos saber qual eh o efeito dela sob a dependent Variable ○​ Dependent Variables É a Variável que sofre o efeito. Não podemos manipular ela, só vai ser Observed. Eh a que vamos medir. -​ Outcome, controlled, explained, response, usually on the Y-Axis ○​ Intervening Variables mediate or moderate the relationship between IV e DV! Helps explain it. Mediate = a step in the process. Explains why the IV has influence on DV Moderate = determines the strength and direction, how much influence ○​ Extraneous Variables Qualquer variável que possivelmente influencia a Dependent Variable. Nao necessariamente afeta a relationship entre IV e DV Should be controlled, otherwise could be an issue! cause noise in the relationship. ○​ Confounding Variables Um tipo de EX V que afeta both a IV e a DV, portanto fica difícil de saber se eh de fato a IV que está causando o efeito ou a confounding V. Pode levar a uma interpretação errada. ○​ Control Variables the ones we hold constant so that they don't disturb the relationship between IV and DP aka influence outcomes! So that the only true effect comes from the IV  ○​ Scales of variables Categorical: -​ Nominal: simply defined categories (political party) -​ Ordinal: there is an intrinsic order (Grades, ABC) Numerical: -​ Discrete: numbers, countable values (number of students) -​ Continuous: numbers on a continuous scale (Height, Temperature) ○​ Operationalizing variables AKA transforming concepts into measurable observations → we need to define the concept, then choose indicators for that concept and then define the measurement criteria for it! ○​ examples of mos used Variables in educational psychology Cognitive V. = problem solving ability, working memory capacity, critical thinking skills Motivational Variables = academic motivation, persistence, task value perception Behavioral variables = study habits, help seeking behavior, Classroom participation Social variables = peer interaction, sense of belonging Emotional variables = academic anxiety, enjoyment of learning ​ Step 2: Formulate Research Questions & Hypothesis ○​ Define research question goal: be as clear and specific as possible! ​ ​ and then choose between a ○​ Causal hypothesis: explica uma cause effect relationship. em que uma causa uma coisa na outra ○​ Correlational hypothesis: só determina que duas variáveis têm uma relação. Noa explica a direção. So que mudança em uma esta associado com mudança na outra ​ Step 3: Design the Experiment & Collect Data 2 types of experimental design: ○​ Between-subject design from the sample you (randomly) assign them 2 groups. One will be the control group and the other the treatment/ experimental group. → use when: carryover effects are unavoidable, tasks are lengthy, fresh and unbiased responses are required  ○​ Within-subjects design Everyone from the sample goes through the treatment. the comparison in the end is within the same person to see the effect of the treatment. → use when: reducing individual differences é essencial!!! sample size is limited, no risk of fatigue or carryover effects Type of PROS CONS experiment design between 1) Prevents Carry-over effects 1) Precisa de mais gente pra ser subject design (practice or learning effects) estatisticamente significante 2) Pessoa tem que ficar menos 2) Mais gente tb CUSTA mais tempo (passa por só 1 medição) 3) Chance de sofrer com 3) Mais facil de design, INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (se simplified procedure as pessoas q tao num grupo ja tem mais digital literacy por exemplo, variability between groups may cause external validity issues) Confound effects Within subject 1) precisa de menos participants 1) Risk of carryover effects design (learning effects) 2) Controls for INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2) Potential for order effects (dependendo do que vem antes a 2) high statistical power pq low ordem dos efeitos pode afetar os variability e + statistical resultados sensitivity ja q cada participante eh seu próprio control - as diferenças nos resultados dps to treatment are less likely to be por causa de individual variability ○​ Other aspects of the design to think about: → Single or double blind study? Single: just the participants don't know why or in which group the´re in Double: both participants and researchers don't know the group they´re in why? Minimizes Biases! like placebo effects or in data collection! ○​ Methods of Data Collection: ​ ​ ​ → experiments ​ ​ ​ → Survey and questionnaires ​ ​ ​ → Interviews after na intervention ​ ​ ​ → Observational studies like eye tracking ​ ​ ​ → case studies and focus groups ​ Step 4: Conduct Statistical Analysis ○​ Descriptive Statistics (to summarize and visualize data) -​ Mean, median, mode, standard deviation, graphs ○​ Inferential Statistics (to draw conclusions from data) -​ T test: differences between 2 groups -​ ANOVA: differences between 3 or more groups -​ Chi-square tests: compare categorical data (nominal or ordinal, words) by counts or frequencies ex. gender distribution in study programs ​ Step 5: Interpret Results to interpret data you have two focus on 2 key components: (strength of relationship) 1)​ STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE and 2) EFFECT SIZE p-value, if p< 0.05 eh significant Cohen’s d, R², or η² ​ common mistakes include: -​ overgeneralizing results beyond the sample -​ ignoring confounding variables and biases -​ focusing on only statistical significance and not on effect sizes ​ Step 6: Identify Challenges and Mitigation Strategies ○​ Threats to internal validity: (mede o que de fato se propôs a medir, eh de fato a IV que influencia a DV) 1)​ Confounding variables = if you there are other variables that also influence the relationship between IV and DV that you don't know about and haven’t controlled for. 2)​ Selection Bias = if some characteristic in one of the groups is different and it steers the results. Ex: one group has a higher baseline knowledge already ​ ​ → how to Mitigate threats to internal validity? -​ use random assignments to groups to balance -​ implement matching techniques to pair participants with similar attributes across groups -​ include a manipulation check to confirm that the IV was applied as intended! if it actually came across like it should, perceived correctly. Then you can rule out other explanations ​ ​ ​  ○​ Threats to external validity: (How applicable this is to other scenarios) 1)​ Limited External Validity = findings do not apply to real world scenarios because you only saw the effectiveness in a controlled environment. Ex: does not translate to real world classrooms. 2)​ measurement errors = if instruments lack reliability or validity, not accurately measuring what we want ​ ​ → how to Mitigate threats to external validity? -​ test interventions in ecologically valid environments (ex: actual classrooms with different tech supplies) -​ replication studies across diverse settings, populations, contexts -​ use validated scales (ensure reliability) -​ ensure consistency through standardized procedures for measurements ○​ Participant related biases: 1)​ Hawthorne Effect: participants alter their behavior pq sabem que estão sendo estudados 2)​ Demand Characteristics effect: guess the purpose of the study and try to act accordingly, change behaviors to meet expectations → how to mitigate participant related biases? -​ implement single blind design to avoid targeted changes in behavior -​ use deceptive instructions to mask real purpose of the study ○​ Ethical concerns: to mitigate them: 1) obtain informed consent, 2) Ensure confidentiality, 3) Provide debriefing sessions to explain use, purpose and address concerns ○​ Threats of using AI tools: 1)​ Systematic Bias in AI systems: algorithms can lead to unfair outcomes to some groups. ex: lower scores for creative then academic style writing 2)​ External Validity: an AI system performed super well in the lad but in real classroom with noise and unreliable wifi maybe they don't get the same results 3)​ Ethical concerns and student privacy: collecting and storing personal data like performance and behavior ​ Step 8: Apply findings to improve the learning process ​ ​ Key things to think about when implementing findings: 1)​ Evaluate what you´ve created: never stop refining, enhancing AI tools to make sure they meet needs 2)​ Adapt to meet real world needs: think about scalability and accessibility 3)​ Support teaches and students: empower who´ll use the system 4)​ Continuous improvement to ensure effectiveness, never stop refining  Types of knowledge transfer ○​ Theory to Practice: applying research findings to real world educational interventions ○​ Practice to Research: Using observations from classrooms to refine theories and inform further research ○​ Interdisciplinary transfer: adapting knowledge from one field to another ex: cognitive psychology to instructional design ○​ ↑ Vertical Transfer: process of building upon foundational knowledge or skills to solve more complex problems, relies on progression and prior research ex: creating applied solutions from what was before pure theoretical knowledge ○​ → Horizontal Transfer: the application of knowledge, methods or findings from one domain, population or context to another! is about adaptability and cross disciplinary learning and requires finding commonalities between them ​ Challenges in knowledge Transfer: ○​ Generalizability: make sure findings apply in different contexts or being clear where it does and does not apply, map it out and define it ○​ Resistance to Change: current major issue, make use of trainings and things to improve the likelihood of acceptance ○​ Lack of clear communication: issue of non-experts misinterpreting the findings…. conduct implementation through clearing- houses for knowledge transfer