Introduction to Psychology - Past Paper PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. This implies 3 essential elements: a. Learning is a change in behavior b. Change occurs through practice or experience c. Change in behavior must be r...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY LEARNING It refers to relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice, experience or training. This implies 3 essential elements: a. Learning is a change in behavior b. Change occurs through practice or experience c. Change in behavior must be relatively permanent and last for considerable time THEORIES OF LEARNING 1. Connectionism - by Edward Lee Thorndike - all learning is explained by connections or bonds formed between stimuli and responses. a. Laws of readiness – physiologically and psychologically prepared.​ b. Laws of exercise – repetitions and rehearsals​ c. Laws of effect - the consequence of a certain response is favorable or satisfying. 2. Classical Conditioning - by Ivan Pavlov – neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response because it has been paired with unconditioned stimulus/ learning through association a. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – natural stimulus which automatically elicits a response. (food ) b. Unconditioned Response (UCR) - automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation to the food) c. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – neutral stimulus which at first cannot elicit a response but after pairing with the UCS is able to elicit CR (bell) d. Conditioned Response (C) - learned response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell) concepts: a. Stimulus generalization ▪ Giving similar response to stimuli that resemble the original stimulus. b. Stimulus Descrimination ▪ Giving different response to different stimuli c. Extinction ▪ Disappearance of learned response or the unlearning process d. Spontaneous recovery ▪ The return of the conditioned response, the relearning process. 3. Operant Conditioning by Burrhus Frederick Skinner - learning through consequences, there is a need for a performance of task before reinforcement is given. Reinforcement - increases likelihood of behavior Punishment - decreases likelihood of behavior Positive reinforcement - Increases the chance that the response will be repeated. (chores=allowance) Negative reinforcement - one that has to be terminated or withdrawn to increase the likelihood that the response will be repeated. (not giving a quiz because the class behave properly) a. Extinction - unlearning which means learned response would disappear if not reinforced. b. Shaping - is slowly and continually modifying behavior 4. Observational or Social Learning by Albert Bandura - Learning from watching others’ behaviors, “Learner” mimics a “role model” a. Attention – the observer focus his attention to what distinctive features of the model he wants to imitate b. Retention – the observer should remember the observed behavior of the model c. Motor reproduction – able to perform the task of imitating the model d. Motivation – if the result of imitating is pleasurable such feelings serves as motivation to continue imitating MEMORY Memory – is the ability to remember information, events and experiences Memory Processes 1. Encoding - transforming sensory input or information into a code so that the nervous system can process it. a. acoustic codes – saying out loud or to ourselves repeatedly b. visual codes – keeping a mental image of the object c. semantic codes – making meaning on objects to remember it. 2. Storage—encoded information is saved over a period of time, it can remain for few seconds or much longer depending on how important it is. 3. Retrieval—also called “recalling”, process of bringing to mind that which has been stored in memory. Three Stages of Memory 1. Sensory Memory- brief storage that immediately follow initial stimulation of receptor Iconic memory - visual sensory memory, hold visual information up to a second  Echoic memory – auditory information for 1 to 2 seconds Haptic memory – for touch Gustic memory – for taste Olfactic memory – for smell 2. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory - temporarily store the things we have in our awareness or consciousness, limited capacity (holds 7 to 8 items), brief storage (about 30 seconds) Ex. Hearing a song that is interesting to you. 3. Long-Term Memory - organizes and stores information, Preserving unlimited items of info over long period of time, thought by some to be permanent Types of Long-Term Memory Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory. Types: 1. Episodic memory— Memory tied to your own personal experiences within a definited period of time. Ex. Birthday 2. Semantic memory—information about facts, general knowledge, school work. Ex. What is psychology? Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory Autobiographical Memory Memorable Transitions Autobiographical Memory - The recollections people have of their own personal experiences and observations. People’s memories are most vivid for times of transition. > Flashbulb Memories - Highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events that are dramatic and emotional > Childhood Amnesia - The inability of most people to recall events from before the age of three or four > Hindsight Bias - The tendency to think after an event that one knew in advance what was going to happen Forgetting as retrieval failure Retrieval—process of accessing stored Information. Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Measures of Retrieval Recall—retrieving what is stored in the LTM without any reminder cues. Ex. Essay and enumeration test 1. Free recall – answers can be given in no particular order 2. Serial recall – answer requires specific arrangement Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices​ Ex. Multiple choice Memory Distortion Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas. Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information Forgetting Theories 1. Encoding Failures - Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features 2. Interference Theories - “Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time but caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory a. Retroactive Interference - New information blocks our recall of previously learned information b. Proactive Interference - Old information hinder us from recalling new events and information 3. Motivated Forgetting - Undesired memory is held back from awareness Suppression—conscious forgetting Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian) 4. Decay Theories - Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Techniques to improve memory Maintenance Rehearsal-mental or verbal repetition of information Chunking- Process of grouping distinct bits of information into larger wholes to increase short-term memory capacity. Method of Loci – visualizing object in familiar places Mnemonics - Memory aids designed to facilitate the recall of new information. INTELLIGENCE Crystallized Intelligence – learning from past experiences and learning.  Fluid Intelligence - the ability to think and reason abstractly and solve problems. Theories of Intelligence 1. Spearman’s General Intelligence - Theorized that a general intelligence factor (g) underlies other, more specific aspects of intelligence based on how he noticed people who did well on one test tended to do similarly well on others. 2. Louis L. Thurstone - Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. Believed that there were different “primary mental abilities” each independent from the other. Examples: Verbal Comprehension, numerical ability, reasoning & perceptual speed. The g factor was just an overall average score of these independent abilities. 3. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences - several independent mental abilities that allow a person to solve problems, create products that are valued within one’s culture. Gardner’s Types of Intelligence ​ 1. Linguistic Intelligence - Reading comprehension, Language, Writing​ 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence - solving math and logic problems​ 3. Musical Intelligence - appreciation and creating music​ 4. Spatial Intelligence - judging distance, map reading, geometry​ 5. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence - balance, physical strength, endurance​ 6. Interpersonal Intelligence - understanding others, listening, cooperating ​ 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence - understanding and knowledge of the self​ 8. Naturalistic Intelligence - appreciating nature, working and knowledge of plants and animals 4. Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - Disagrees with Gardner in calling these intelligences. Instead believes these are talents or abilities. Said Intelligence is a general quality ​ 1. Analytic intelligence—mental processes used in learning how to solve problems​ 2. Creative intelligence—ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge​ 3. Practical intelligence—ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts) 5. Emotional Intelligence - The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions. People high in emotional intelligence are more in touch with their feelings and the feelings of others. The Wechsler Scales Verbal Subtests Information: culturally acquired info Vocabulary: general verbal intell. Arithmetic: numerical reasoning Similarities: abstract reasoning Comprehension: social norms Digit Span: short term memory Performance Subtests Picture Completion: visual concentration and nonverbal general information Picture Arrangement: ability to plan, interpret and anticipate in social context Block Design: perceptual organization, spatial visualization and abstract concentration Object Assembly: visual motor organ., synthesis Digit Symbol: visual memory EMOTION AND MOTIVATION Emotion is a distinct feeling or quality of consciousness, such as joy or sadness, which reflects the personal significance of an emotion-arousing event. Human emotion is a feeling that is private and subjective. Humans can report an extraordinary range of states which they can feel or experience. Some are accompanied by obvious signs of enjoyment or distress, but often these have no overt indicators. Elements of Emotion 1. The Body - a. Primary emotions - There are universal and biological bases to be considered in emotion. Emotions generally consist of fear, anger, sadness, joy, surprise, disgust, and contempt.​ b. Secondary emotions - These are developed with cognitive maturity and vary across individuals and cultures. 2. The Mind - It is said that thoughts may create emotions. When a person thinks on something to happen, then the emotion may be involved 3. The Culture - determines what people feel angry, sad, lonely, happy, and ashamed or disgusted about. Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures. Some cultures don't have words for emotions that seem universal to others. Differences in secondary emotions appear to be reflected in differences in languages. Areas of Emotion 1. Facial expressions for primary emotions are universal expression of human emotions. Smiling is universally recognized as a positive reaction to certain situations and events. 2. Brain Regions and Circuits. The amygdala is responsible for assessing any eminent threat. Study shows that damage to the amygdala may result in abnormality to process fear. During the experience of an intense emotion, two kinds of hormones are released. The release of Epinephrine and the Norepinephrine is common during the experience. This results in increased alertness and arousal. At high levels, it can create the sensation of being out of control emotionally. 3. The Autonomic Nervous System. Would it be possible to detect emotions through covert actions? Is the body capable of lying in terms of emotions? Lie detectors or Polygraph testing relies on the autonomic nervous system arousal. During situations of agitation, typical measures would include galvanic skin response, increase or decrease in pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and the individual may manifest fidgeting. Characteristics of Emotion ​ 1. Adaptive. Emotion can be adaptive and help us deal with changing environment or stress, through repression of emotion like diluting its intensity or significance or by over-reacting such as working faster and harder, seeing stress as a challenge. 2. Physiological Changes. Changes within the body are a major element of fear, anger, joy, and other emotions. These are involuntary reactions of the body. These include changes in heart rate, blood pressure, perspiration, and other bodily reactions. 3. Emotional Expressions. These are manifestations of what the person feels such as trembling of hands, contortions of the face, tensed posture and when the intensity of fear becomes high, the person may manifest defensiveness. Emotion may also be revealed through marked shifts invoice tone or modulation. The ability of individuals to express emotions is important because it is a means to send their feelings to others.​ 4. Emotional Feelings. The experiences that a person may gather will reflection his responses when he or she is placed on different situations. Theories of Emotion​ 1. James-Lange Theory (1884-1885). The theory argued that emotional feelings follow bodily arousal. A person, who may see a snake, can shake, is aroused, and then feels fear as he becomes aware of his body reactions. 2. Cannon-Bard Theory (1927). The theory proposed that emotional feelings and bodily arousal are both organized by the brain. Seeing the snake activates the thalamus, which in turn alerts both the cortex and the hypothalamus for action. The cortex is responsible for emotional feelings and emotional behavior. The hypothalamus thus, is responsible for arousing the body. 3. Schachter's Cognitive Theory of Emotion (1971). Stanley Schachter realized that cognitive (mental) factors also enter into emotion. The theory assumes that when an individual is aroused; he has a need to interpret his feelings. Emotion occurs when a particular label is applied. 4. The Evolutionary Perspective. The evolutionary perspective started in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's publication of a book on the expression of emotions in man and animals. Darwin's original idea was that emotions evolved via natural selection for reasons of warning other creatures about their intentions. Darwin also argued that for man, emotions were no longer functional but are functional associated habits. Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and facial expressions in humans. Classification of Emotions 1. Primary Emotions. These are considered as basic emotions because the emotions may blend in together to form other forms of emotions or reactions on different situations. (joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, anticipation, anger, and disgust) 2. Mixed Emotions. Plutchik felt that adjacent emotions can be mixed to yield a third, more complex emotion. And other mixture is still possible. A child who stole the cookie in the cookie jar may feel both happy and fear. Guilt may result in effect of both emotions. The Functions of Emotions 1. Emotions are used in order to communicate and influence others.​ 2. Emotions can be utilized to organize and motivate action. ​ 3. Emotions can be self-validating. Functions of Emotion 1. Emotions gives color to people's lives and give them their needed depth and differentiation. 2. Physiologically, emotions aid individuals for survival. 3. Emotions also help people monitor their social behavior and regulate their interactions with others. 4. Outward expressions of emotions in forms of body language mean different things in different cultures. 5. Emotion can motivate behaviors. Studies have shown that there are several factors that influence the optimum level of arousal for an individual on any particular task.​ 1. Task Difficulty. It is best to have high level of arousal if the task is considered to be easy and simple. 2. Task Familiarity. If a task is familiar, a higher level of arousal will allow you to achieve optimum performance. 3. Individual Differences. No two individuals are the same. There are individuals who seem to work better under stress and will often seek out activities that create maximum levels of arousal. While others prefer a more relaxed or sedate way of approaching life. Effects of Emotions 1. Positive attitudes and emotions can help increase your health. 2. Positive attitudes and emotions can help improve one's self concept. The perception of each individual in his/her world is greatly influenced by the way he/she feels about him/herself Development of Emotions 1. General excitement is the only emotional response newborn infants clearly express. 2. Emotional life blossoms rapidly. There is a consistent order in which emotions appear. First, a split between pleasant and unpleasant. Darwin believed that emotional expressions were retained during the course of human evolution because communicating feelings to others is an aid to survival. 3. Adults control and develop gestures that can become unique to various cultures. Motivation can be defined as an internal state or condition, sometimes described as a need, desire, or want that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction 1. Everybody is motivated. Contrary to what people think, everyone is motivated but we are not all motivated by the same things, one can be motivated by food but not with a beautifully written poem, motivation can depend on the event, the time, the place, people when we say a person is not motivated, what we are saying is they are not doing what we want, how we want, or when we want.​ 2. Reasons of behaving. Looking for the reason behind behavior is difficult. People may lack self-awareness as to the reason for their own behavior. People could be hiding their intentions and may project motivations onto others.​ 3. Motivation can be conscious or unconscious.​ a. Conscious Motivations are motivations that are willful and we are aware of, thus, we can provide rationale and an explanation. ​ b. Unconscious Motivations are motivations that we are not aware of. We don't have an understanding of them and people may behave and then question why they did or said that these behaviors may be the result of repressed fears, anxieties, and latent hostilities. Freud and Jung would say these actions are from the unconscious level of awareness. 4. Motivation can be Internal or External Locus of Control. In the Internal Locus of Control, a person may manifest negative behavior caused by himself. External Locus Control meanwhile relates the negative behavior to the poor living environment or due to alcoholism, abuse or drug addiction of the parent Theories of Motivation 1. Instinct Theory states that there is an innate biological force causing an organism to act in a certain way. These “forces” are perceived to be automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behavior patterns or reflexive behavior that are elicited when certain stimuli are present. 2. Homeostatic Theories state that organisms attempt to maintain homeostasis, the balance of physiological state or equilibrium by constantly adjusting themselves to the demands of the environment. It can be noted that every living thing has certain biological needs, sex, hunger, thirst, that is caused by imbalance because those variables are absent in the physical body. Two Types of Drives ​ a. Primary drives - One resulting from biological needs, known as the innate drive. ​ b. Secondary drives - Drives that result from operant conditioning and the association with primary reinforcements. 3. Arousal Theory states that rather than all organisms being motivated to seek to reduce arousal, they seek to maintain an optimal level of arousal and this optimal level varies from organism to organism. 4. Incentive Theory According to this theory, people and animals are likely to be activated because they have the tendency to be pulled toward a specific goal. They would try to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. People would then attempt to attain goals that are pleasurable and they try to avoid goals that are painful. 5. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs One of the most popular theories in motivation is Abraham Maslow's Sequential Theory of Development. Maslow made a hypothesis that our needs are prioritized from physiological, to biological, to social, and up to the spiritual. He believed that the needs at the lower levels had to be satisfied before one could focus on satisfying needs at the higher levels. 6. Freudian Concept of Motivation According to the theory of Sigmund Freud, sexual or libidinal and aggressive wishes are the primary motivating forces in human life. Erotic feelings have long been recognized as a primary human motivation, and Freud showed how infantile pleasures and desires are precursors of adult sexuality. 7. Other Concepts of Motivation An American psychologist Magda B. Arnold stated that there are three (3) components of motivation: ​ * direction - what a person is trying to do ​ * effort - how hard a person is trying ​ * persistence - how long a person keeps on trying motivation Intrinsic – these are self-generated factors such as responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and develop skills and abilities, perform interesting and challenging works, and opportunities for self-enhancement. Intrinsic motivation usually has deeper and longerterm effect. Extrinsic - these are motivations coming from the people around the individual. It may be in a form of rewards, promotion, or even punishment. Extrinsic motivation has an immediate and powerful effect, but it won't necessarily last long. 8. Needs Theory One of the most influential theories based on the content of motives is the needs theory. This is based on the belief that all behaviors are motivated by unsatisfied needs. 9. Alderfer's ERG Theory the expansion of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He categorized the needs for Existence (E), Relatedness (R), and Growth (G).Alderfer categorized physiological and safety as part of the lower order of needs, the category Existence. Under the category of Relatedness, Alderfer viewed interpersonal love and esteem needs as the essentials for relatedness. The Growth category contained the self-actualization and self-esteem needs. 10. McClelland’s Needs According to McClelland, the three (3) most important needs are achievement need for competitive success measured against a personal, affiliation need for warm, friendly relationships with others, and power need to control and influence others 11. Herzberg's Two-factor Model. Herzbergs' theory states the function of motivators and hygiene factors.​ Motivators are the factors that really motivate people ​ Hygiene factors are dissatisfiers: with their absence, people would not be motivated but still, with their presence, it is not a guarantee that there will be an improved motivation. 12. Expectancy Theory explained why individuals choose to follow certain courses of action in organizations, particularly indecision-making and leadership. Expectancy theory predicts that employees in an organization will be motivated when they believe that: * putting in more effort will yield better performance; * better performance will lead to rewards or attainment of reinforcements; and * the rewards received are valued by the individuals. 13. Goal theory Mastery/Performance Mastery orientation is described as the individual's desire to become proficient in a certain topic to the best of his/her ability. Task/Ego Involvement This mandates that an individual as a task-involved subject who is interested in the task for its own qualities. Approach/Avoidance goals Basically, not all goals are directed towards approaching a positive outcome. Goals can also be directed towards avoiding an undesirable outcome. Motivation and performance are higher when individuals are set specific goals. Goals may be difficult but still accepted. As long as they are accepted, difficult goals lead to better performance as compared to those easy goals. In order to enhance the performance, feedback is essential. 14. Adams' Equity Theory pertains to the perceptions of people about how they are being treated as compared with others. 15. Other Theories of Motivation​ Behavioral Theory by Burrhus Skinner. Behavior is learned from conditioning through operations and learning takes place mainly through reinforcement. ​ Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory gives significance of reinforcement as a determinant of future behavior, importance of internal psychological factors. Attribution Theory (Guest) has an explanation of performance after we invested considerable effort and motivation in a task there are four (4) types of explanations: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. Motivation depends on the factor used to explain success or failure. Classification of Motives 1. Physiological Motives - these are motives essential for the survival of man for its existence. need for hunger, thirst, sleep/rest, proper elimination of waste, maintaining proper body temperature, sexual urges, 2. Psychological Motives are motives essential for man to function appropriately as a social being. The need to socialize is important in this motive. Affection, security and safety, affiliation, status, dependency, social approval 3. Ego-Integrative Motives are motives that enhance the individual's self-concept. Recognition, power drive, achievement General Principles of Motivation 1. Incentives motivate learning. Incentives include privileges and receiving praises. We could determine different forms of incentives that will likely motivate an individual in a particular time. In a general situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Individuals must find satisfaction based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things. 2. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators. People tend to look for others with whom he could compare his abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation can also result in direct reduction of anxiety by the social acceptance and the mere presence of others. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and other behaviors that may be classified as negative. 3. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives. Motivation is necessary for maintaining or enhancing behavior that strategies should be planned to organize a continuous and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. The general principles of motivation are interrelated. A single objective for an action can use many of them simultaneously.