PSY 201 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

[**Study Guide for Psychological Theories** (Chapter 1)] What is/are the underlying assumption(s) of each of these perspectives as they relate to the factors that cause or influence of behavior and mental processes? 1. Behavioral -- it focuses on observing and controlling one's behavior. 2....

[**Study Guide for Psychological Theories** (Chapter 1)] What is/are the underlying assumption(s) of each of these perspectives as they relate to the factors that cause or influence of behavior and mental processes? 1. Behavioral -- it focuses on observing and controlling one's behavior. 2. Psychodynamic -- it focuses on the unconscious and how it affects conscious behavior. 3. Biological- focuses on how a person's biology affects one's behavior. 4. Cognitive- focuses on the thoughts, and their relationships to experiences and actions. 5. Humanistic -all humans are naturally good (how they thrive and improve lives) [**Study Guide for Scientific Method Questions** (Chapter 2)] 1. Define each of the following. When presented with a scenario be able to identify each. (HINT you may want to write a scenario identifying each of these) a. *Hypothesis -- tentative and testable prediction about the relationship between to variables.* b. *independent variable-( controlled) the most important difference between the experimental and controlled group.* c. *dependent variable- the variable the researcher measures to see how mucb effect the independent variable had.* d. *experimental group -- the participants that experience the manipulated variable.* e. *control group- participants that do not experience the manipulated variable.* 2. Know the five research methods and the strengths and weaknesses of each: f. *case study* i. *strengths: deep understanding of one person's situation, useful for studying rare or unusual conditions, can use different methods to gather information.* ii. *weaknesses: takes a lot of time to collect information, hard to say why something happens, the researcher may be influenced by their own opinion, and what you learn may not be applied to others.* g. *naturalistic observation,* iii. *strengths: observation happens in subjects' natural environment, they don't know they are being studied, and detailed information about behavior and interactions.* iv. *weaknesses: takes a lot of time, researchers might interpret behaviors based on their expectations, and external variables cannot be controlled.* h. *survey,* v. *strengths: can collect large numbers of people quickly, inexpensive, can cover a wide range of topics and questions.* vi. *Weaknesses- people may not answer honestly or may misunderstand questions, most cases don't allow detailed or in-depth responses, and not everyone will complete a survey which can lead to reliability.* i. *experiment,* vii. *strengths: researchers can manipulate variables to determine cause and effect, are repeatable, and controlled settings help minimize external influences.* viii. *weaknesses: settings may not reflect the real-world situation* j. *correlational study* ix. *strengths: helps show if two variables are connected, uses existing data for natural observations, is easier and less expensive..* x. *weaknesses: can't prove that one variable causes another only that they're related, its unclear which variable influences the other.* 3. Know how to interpret a *correlation coefficient*. Understand the meaning of correlation strength and direction. - The strength of a correlation tells us how closely two variables - It is a number that shows how strongly two variables are related to each other it isusually represented by r. 4. *Random assignment* is a defining characteristic of the experiment. Why? It ensures that participants are assigned to different groups. It ensures the validity and reliability of the study conclusions. [**Study Guide for Biological and Behavior** (Chapter 3)] 1. Identify the following tools (procedures) for studying the brain including: a. CT- cat scan, a medical imaging technique that combines multiple X rays from different angles around the body. b. PET- type of medical imaging that shows how organs and tissue in your body are working. c. MRI- very detailed images of soft tissue without harmful radiation. 2. Identify the basic parts and structure of the neuron including dendrites, soma and axon. -- neurons are information processors. Dendrites -- extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons. Soma- the central part of a neuron, also the cell body. Axon -- the wiring that carries messages from one neuron to its target. 3. What are neurotransmitters? Identify the different neurotransmitters and their functions. - The messagers of the brain enabling the neurons to communicate and coordinate functions in the body. - Dopamine -- affects mood & motivation - Serotonin helps control mood & sleep - Acetylcholine -- memory & muscles - GABA -- calms brain activity - Endorphins- natural painkillers 4. Identify the major divisions and subdivisions of the nervous system (organization) including functions and recognize examples of each. - 1)Central nervous system -- process and send out information to the rest of the body. - Brain -- thoughts, memories, emotions, motor skills, vision, and more. - \- example: the cerebellum is responsible for decision-making and controls balance. - Spinal cord- transmits a signal between the brain and the rest of the body. - Example- the spinal cord helps you respond quickly to reflexes like pulling your hand away from something. - 2)Peripheral nervous system- connects the CNS to the limbs and organ - Somatic nervous system- controls voluntary movements and sends sensory info to the cns - Example- moving your hand to wave at someone or feeling a touch. - 3)Autonomic nervous system -- Regulates involuntary functions. - Sympathetic nervous system -- prepares the body for flight or fight. -- - Example: increases heart rate and blood flow to muscles in response to stress. - Parasympathetic nervous system: calm down the body after stress. - For example- it slows down heart rate and helps with digestion. 5. Which part of the brain is responsible for higher-order thinking skills (also known as complex thought)? - The prefrontal cortex located in the frontal lobe. 6. Which part of the brain regulates hunger, thirst and body temperature? The hypothalamus 7. Which part of the brain is critical for coordination of movement and physical balance? Cerebellum [**Study Guide for Learning and Memory** (Chapters 6)] 1. What is classical conditioning? When presented with a scenario, be able to identify an example of classical conditioning. - learning by associating stimuli that repeatedly happen together. 2. What leads to extinction with classical conditioning? - When the learned response fades over time. The conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are broken. 3. What is operant conditioning? -when organisms learn to engage in behavior reinforced by rewards and punishment. 4. What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination? - Generalization broadens the response to similar stimuli ( reacting to similar things ), while discrimination narrows the response to a specific stimulus. ( react to only one thing ) 5. How does negative reinforcement relate to escape and avoidance of an aversive stimulus? -both behaviors are reinforced because they remove or prevent something bad. 6. What is the difference between a primary and a secondary reinforcer? -The primary reinforcer is your basic needs ( water, food, sleep). Secondary reinforcers gain value by being associated with primary reinforcers like ( money or praise) 7. What is observational learning? When presented with a scenario, be able to identify an example of observational learning. - Learning when watching others and imitating their behaviors. A baby watching parents walking, trying to walk. 8. Differentiate between procedural and episodic memories. -procedural memory is how to do things, skills, and actions. Episodic memories are specific events and experiences including details like time and place. 9. Differentiate between sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. - Sensory- holds info from your senses for a very short time, short-term- term -- holds info for a short time so you can use it right away (a few seconds to minutes). Long-term stores info for a long time or even a lifetime. 10. What is chunking about memory? -- -When you group pieces of information into larger more manageable chunks to make it easier to remember [**Study Guide for Human Development Questions** (Chapter 7)] 1. What is the focus of Human Growth and Development? - The a lifetime process where people grow, change, and adapt emotionally, socially, and physically. 2. What are the stages of Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory, and at what ages does each particular stage occur? The thought that personality happens throughout the lifespan \- infant -- basic mistrust -toddler- shame, and doubt -preschooler -- guilt \- school-ager -- inferiority -Young adult isolation \- middle age- stagnation \- older adult -- despair 3. What are the stages of Piaget's theory? What is the focus of Piaget's stage theory? - Focused on children's cognitive growth - Sensorimotor 0-2 - Preoperational 2-7 - Concrete operational -- 7-11 - Formal operational 11- adulthood 4. How are moral decisions made (deciding whether an action is right or wrong) at the different levels of Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning stages? -pre-conventional 3-7 obedience and punishment \- conventional obey rules and regulations \- post-conventional- makes and keeps promises What normal age-related changes are seen in the cognitive abilities of older adults? -as people get older some normal changes in their thinking and memory can happen. Usually mild and don't stop daily activities. 5. What is the important cognitive development that occurs during Piaget's sensorimotor stage? - Post-formal operational thought- the decisions made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on context. [**Study Guide for Personality Questions** (Chapter 8)] 1. What is the focus of Maslow's Humanistic theory of development? - *a person's growth and reaching their full potential.* 2. What are the characteristics of the personality traits of the Five-Factor theory of personality? - Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. 3. How does a Projective Personality Test assess personality, and what are examples of the two types of personality tests? - they assess a person's personality by showing them unclear images or situations and asking them to respond. - *INK BLOT test - A person looks at an ink blot image and says what they see. -- reveals hidden emotions or how they view the world.* - *Thematic apperception test -- a person looks at pictures of people in different situations and tells a story about each one- the story they create can show their concerns, desires or relationships.* 4. According to the Social-Cognitive Theory of Personality, how does personality develop? - The concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning and self-efficacy all play a part in personality development. 5. What are the three components of Freud's Psychodynamic Theory of Personality, and on what principle does each component operate? -oral stage- pleasure focused on the mouth \- anal -- pleasure is experienced in the bowel and bladder movements Phallic -- become aware of own body and recognize difference in genders [**Study Guide for Test Construction and Administrative Questions** (Chapter 14)] 1. What assessment tools are available to measure *personality*? - Self-reporting questionaries, projective tests, behavioral observations, interviews, situational judgement test. 2. What are the characteristics of a well-designed psychological test? - Validity, reliability, standardization, norms, fairness, clarity, practicality, sensitivity. 3. Know the difference (i.e., what they measure) between and intelligence test, aptitude test, achievement test and personality test. - Intelligence test- measure overall cognitive ablity. - Aptitude test- measures potential to learn develop skills - Achievement test -- measure how much a person has learned or mastered a certain body of knowledge. [**Study Guide for Abnormal Psychology and the Treatment of Mental Disorder** (Chapters 15 & 16)] 1. What are the key symptoms of each of the anxiety disorders, mood disorders and schizophrenia? - Anxiety disorder -- excessive worry and physical symptoms - Panic disorder- recurrent panic attacks - Social anxiety -- intense fear of social judgment - Phobias- an irrational fear of specific objects or situations - Obsessive-compulsive disorder- intrusive thoughts and repetitive actions - Post-traumatic stress disorder -- flashbacks, avoidance, - Separation anxiety- excessive fear of separation from a figure - -major depressive- depressed mood, loss of interest, changes in sleep and appetite. - \- bipolar- alternating manic - Cyclothymic- chronic mood instability with hypomanic and depressive symptoms lasting 2 years. - Persistent depressive- chronic mild depression for at least 2 years with low self-esteem sleep and appetite. - Schizophrenia -- halluciantions, delusions, disorganized thinking. 2. How does **each** of the major psychological approaches explain and attempt to treat abnormal behavior and mental illness: a. Psychoanalytic- psychoanalysis- bringing unconscious thoughts and feelings to the surface b. Behavioral-classical conditioning, operant conditioning, flooding, behavior therapy c. Cognitive-cognitive restructuring, behavior activation d. Humanistic -client-centered therapy, gestalt therapy, 3. Distinguish between obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, and antisocial personality disorder. - OCPD- very focused on rules, order and perfection - BPD -- person experiences extreme mood swings, struggles with mood swings, and self-imagine - APD- a person doesn't care for others' feelings and often breaks laws. - 4. What are the three key signs (criteria) that behavior is "abnormal"? Deviance- different from society. Distress- the person feels upset or in pain because of emotions - Dysfunction- behavior disrupts the person's daily life, work, or relationships. 5. What is the DSM-5, and what is it used for? -Handbook used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental disorders. 6. What do most drug therapies used to treat psychological disorders do in the brain? -- - Used to treat psychological disorders that affect neurotransmitters in the brain. 7. How do psychotherapy and drug therapies compare in effectiveness and relapse when used to treat psychological disorders? -psychotherapy is effective for long-term changes, lowers relapse rates, and is useful in understanding and managing disorders. \- drug therapy works quickly to manage symptoms but may have a higher relapse rate when discontinued 8. Which area of Applied Psychology focuses on diagnosis (also called "assessment") and treatment of mental disorders? - Clinical psychology is the field dedicated to the diagnosis and treatment of mental health.