Final Exam Preparation PDF

Final Exam Preperation Exam #1: Chapter 1. The evolution of psychology Chapter 2. The research enterprise in psychology Chapter 3. The biological bases of behavior Exam #2: Chapter 4. Sensation and perception Chapter 6. Learning Chapter 7. Memory Exam #3: Chapter 9. Motivation and emotio...

Final Exam Preperation Exam #1: Chapter 1. The evolution of psychology Chapter 2. The research enterprise in psychology Chapter 3. The biological bases of behavior Exam #2: Chapter 4. Sensation and perception Chapter 6. Learning Chapter 7. Memory Exam #3: Chapter 9. Motivation and emotion Chapter 10. Human development across the lifespan Exam #4: Chapter 11. Personality Chapter 12. Social behavior Exam #5: Chapter 13. Stress, coping, and health Chapter 14. Psychological disorders Chapter 15. Treatment of psychological disorders Exam #3 Chapter 4. Sensation and Perception Sensation : receiving information from the environment and changing into nervous system activity Perception : cognitive process of selecting organizing and interpreting stimuli Vision Visual receptors are rods and cones Rods : night vision, 1 type Cones : day and color vision, 3 types Location of the receptors : not evenly distributed in the back of the eye. Cones are clustered together in the middle while the rods are on the side. Therefore, if you want to see color you have to look at it directly. Receptor cells to bipolar cells to ganglion cells: our eyes are set up to summarize small bits of information - the process of convergence Through the retina to the optic nerve, creates blind spots as one part of the optic nerve has no rods or cones. Our brain constantly guesses what is there. Color vision (2 theories) Trichromatic theory (Young Helmholtz) : color vision depends on the relative contribution of each cone type. We have three types of cones and they specialize in one different color - blue, red, and green Color blindness: color deficiency, can just see some colors. Most common in red - green. The interpretation of sensory information Gestalt laws - how people group stimuli together Law of similarity - things that are similar Law of proximity - near each other then same Law of closure - incomplete things as whole Law of continuation - also similar, finding patterns and connecting so its easier to explain Depth perception How do we know how long distance is Binocular - using both eyes Retinal disparities - where it is on the retina Convergence - how much our eyes tur\n inwards Monocular cues: Object size - if something has large image on retina its closer Linear perspective - road narrows Detail or aerial haze - the closer something is the more detail one can see Interposition - the object closer to us blocks the thing further away Texture gradient - things far away look clustered Optical illusions A misinterpretation of a visual stimuli Muller-lyer : misinterpretation of a visual stimuli Ames room : room not square Moon illusion : the moon looks huge Hearing Transduction of sound: from vibration in the air to nerve cell firing Basilar membrane : hair cells vibrate Sensing pitch: pitch is related to frequency of sound waves Frequency theory: our brain interprets the pitch of a sound by matching the frequency of the sound to the rate of nerve impulses that travel up the auditory nerve Place theory: we know what the frequency the pitch is by where it is Both are accurate : for low pitch its the frequency but for the place theory is high Other> Taste receptor: tastebuds, react to chemical substances that are soluble information travels from the taste buds located on the tongue, to the thalamus and cortex Smell (olfactory substance) - stimuli are chemical substances receptors : olfactory cilla - 350 types, information travels to olfactory buld and then to the olfactory cortex (temperal) Touch : six types of receptors, information travels from receptors to thalamus, to somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) Stimuli : mechanical, thermal and chemical energy that comes in contact with skin Pain receptor : people react different to levels of pain Gate (control theory) - body jas natural pain killers Myths - human onlu jabe 5 sences, not true Kinesthetic system - tells you where your body parts are Vestibular system - balance, liquid in ear Classical conditioning : ivan pavilion Undonfitioned stimulus - unlearned stimulus Unconditioned response - unlearned response Conditioned stimulus - learned Unconditioned response - learned response Little albert: the outcome of the experiment was that classical conditioning is possible in humans \ In real life: kids microwaves and their bottles Acquisition stage - the pairing between the stimulus and response Extinction stage - by process of reduction or eliminating a learned behavior by withholding the reinforcing consequences that previously maintained it. Spontaneous recovery : reappearance of a previously learned and exinged condition response Stimulus generalizing - generalizing out learning to different stimuli Discrimination - we learn to discriminate different stimuli Timing - the conditioned stimuli and response needs to be closely together in time Conditioned taste aversion - food posining Operant vs. instrumental conditionin - process of changing behavior by following a response with teingorcement or punishment Reinforcement - an event that increase the prohinitly that the preceding response will be repeated Primary and secondary reinforcement Punishment - an event to decrease a behavior Schedules of reinforcement - continuous and partial Partial - fixed or variable ratio, or fixed or variable interval Behavior modification - a set specific behavioral goals and systematically reinforce successive proximity Social learning : modeling and imirarinf , bandura 3 stages of memory Encoding - attention, levels or processing Storage - keeping information Retrieval - recovering info Exam #3 Chapter 9. Motivation and emotion Why do we do the things we do Motivation - goal directed behavior Motives - needs, wants interests, desires that propel people in certain directions Theories: Drive theory: walter cannons, if one has a drive, its the state of unrest or irritation and when in this state, one is motivated to do something about it so maintain homeostasis Hemostasis: balance in psychological needs Flaws in drive theory: does not explain all motives (art), does not count for external stimulation (not being hungry but getting dunkin) Incent theory: external stimuli regulate motivational state, pull. Evolutionary theory : motivated to do things that increase our genes and chance for survival Motivation of hunger Biological factors Stomach contractions : wrong Brain regulation : hypothalamus Digestive regulations : vagus nerve tells brain when stomach is full and what nutrients are missing Hormonal regulation: - Pancreas - insulin in fat stores - Ghrelin - produced when not eaten in awhile to increase hunger, stomach contractions - CCK - secreted by out upper intestine, carry satient signals - Leptin - produced by upper intestine Environmental factors Organism consumer more when: - Food availability - Palatability : taste food - Quantity availability : large serving sizes - Presence of others Learned preference and habits: classical conditioning (sick foods), Observational learning (learn what to eat from watching others) Various cultures : food preference is governed by exposure and creating culture difference and eating habits Sexual motivation Drive reduction, incentive, evolutionary The human sexual response cycle Master and johnson. 4 stages 1. Excitement 2. Plateau 3. Orgasm 4. Resolution Sex differences. Woman less than men Woman multiorgasm Amount of partners differs Evolutionary perspective Parental investment - easy for males however, woman have to carry child for 9 month and then take care of for 18 years Sexual orientation Continuum Achievement orientation Need to master difficult challenges Need to achieve is hard to measure TAT, explain pictures Traits associated with a high need for achievement - task selection Emotional experience Cognitive component of emotion : intense and difficult to control Physiological - autonomic arousal Behavioral - overt expression Body language - ways people express emotion Behavioral component emotions are revealed through body language and facial expressions. Cultural consideration cross cultural agreement in identification of facial expression (some disparities) Theories of emotion james - lang - autonomic arousal Common hard - same time Schachter's two factor theory - experience arousal then look at surroundings Chapter 9 : Human development across lifespan Parental development Genital period - fertilized egg Embryonic period - embryo, outside factors Fetal period - system goes online, gets in place and stops moving New born - limited survival skills, hearing, vision, reflexes Early childhood Early childhood Motor Development ; varies between age and culture Attachment ; importance of baby forming emotional attachment, primary caregiver 1. Respond to anyone 2. Prefers to familiar 3. Insist on familiar and protest separation Harlow monkey study - prefers comfort Orphanages Strange situation task - secure, anxious, avoidant Language development cooing (2 months), babbling (2-6), first words (1 year) Fast mapping - only need association one time Under extension - general word to specific Over extension - over usage of a word Telegraphic speech - cominging words, sentences (2-3) Overregulation - grammar mistakes Erikson stage of human development 8 stages over life spam, with psychological crisis at each Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guild, industry vs. inferiority Achievement Identity achievement : goal Identity moratorium : actively exploring Identity foreclosure : committing without exploring Cognitive development > John Piaget Schemes : mental representation or category of knowledge Assimilation : process of incorporating new info into existing schemas Accommodation : the process of changing existing schemas and creating new ones to accommodate newinfo 4 stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage - object permanence (don't see it) motor skills Preoperational period - symbols, thinking of things, language Concrete operational stage - mental representation, logic, conservation Formal operational stage - systematic, logic, abstract Vygotsky - sociocultural theory Cognitive development Social interactions with parents, teachers, and older children Language plays crucial role zone of proximal development - task that children can’t do alone one should help with until they can do it alone. Moral development In Kohlberg's theory, morality develops in 3 stages. 1. Preconventional : avoid punishment and gain rewards, external authority 2. Conventional : public opinion determines right or wrong, please others and follow rules 3. Postconventional; : right or wrong based on absolute values such as human life Concerns: justice vs. care, thoughts vs behavior. PRACTICE QUESTIONS Eating an apple when hungry is consistent with a drive theory of motivation An external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior is a drive When henry was a child, the only times he ate turnips was when he was at his grandmother’s house for christmas dinner. Now, as an adult, henry loves the taste pf turnips because he associates them with christmas at his grandmother’s house. In this example, Henry’s preference for the taste of turnips could BEST be explained by using principle of classical conditioning. Scott just experience an orgasm. For about an hour, he cannot achieve another orgasm. Scott is in the resolution phase of the sexual cycle. As mackenzie watched the televised drawing of lottery number, she realized she had the winning combination. If her heart starts to race at the same instant that she feels euphoria over winning the lottery, mackenzie’s response patterns would lend support the cannon barb theory of emotion Imagine that your house is on fire and you are afraid, im afraid because im shaking  Malik has the need to master difficult challenges, outperform others, and meet high standards for excellence. According to research such as McCellend, Malik MOST likely high need to achieve 1. Although jackson had a huge breakfast and he felt stuffed, he ate three of the donuts that a colleague brought to a morning meeting. His behavior is consistent with incentive theories of motivation 2. Based on modern research arcuate and paraventricular appear to have the most influence in regulating hunger 3. That woman are more interested in having many partners than men is false. 4. Kinsey maintained thats sexual orientation should be viewed as a continuum 5. Some basic emotions go unnamed in some cultures 6. According to the James- Lang theory of emotion emotion results from the perception of autonomic arousal 7. The fact that eating behavior,, sexual behavior, and the experience of emotion all depend on interactions between biological and environmental determinants lends evidence to the joint influence of biological and environment 1. Embryonic stage of prenatal development is most vulnerable to injury 2. Development norms indicate the average age at which individuals reach various development milestones 3. Harry harlow > attachment 4. The quality of infant caregiver attachment depends mainly on the caregivers sensitivity and responsiveness 5. Doggie to all 4 legged animals is overextension ‘ 6. David does not understand the concept of conservation 7. Preconventional if a child reasons for not drawing on the living room wall is to avoid punishment 8. Exam #4: Chapter 11. Personality Freud - Psychodynamic Conscius : what we are aware of Preconscious : retrieved easily but not always thinking about (mothers middle name) Unconscious : not aware of but affected by Life instinct - will to stay alive Death instinct - will to die, cause life is hard The life and death instinct conflict and therefore murders occur according to freud PARTS OF PERSONALITY: Id - pleasure principle, wants it now Ego - the rational part of society which finds a balance between the id and ego. The reality principle Super ego - the rational principle, follow the norm and do the right thing always PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Stage Libido Fixation Oral stage Oral stimulation, breast feeding Smoking, over-eating, nail biting Anal stage Potty training, bladder control Anal expulsive personality or anal explosive personality Phallic stage Penis envy, Opedidum complex Fix by getting married Genital stage genitals Latent period Sexual feelings are inactive, social skills develop and superego takes control DEFENCE MECHANISM Denial - refusal to accept Repression - unconscious, keeping mind of things Projection - projecting feelings onto someone else (she thinks it) Displacement - taking it out on someone else Regression - reverts to earlier stages Sublimation - displacement but peaceful, art Rantionalication - coming up with reasons Reaction formation - express the opposite Carl Jung - analytical unconscious The two types of unconscious determines personality Personal unconscious Collective unconscious - latent memory trains inherited from ancestors Ancestral memory - archetypes : emotionally charged memories that have universal meaning Alfred Adler Individual psychology Strive for superiority Overcome inferiority Compensation inferiority complex - feelings of weakness Skinner Behavioral tendencies : we learn how to behave Personality is always changing Bandura Observable learning - we behave like we see others behave Model - someone who gets observed Self efficiency - belief in our abilities Carl rogers, Humanistic Self concept - what we think about ourselves Incongruence - the degree of disparity brtern self concept and truth Congruent - reasonable self concept Ideal self - the person we want to be unconditional positive regard Maslow hierarchy of needs 5. Self actualization 4. Self esteem 3. Belonging 2. safety 1. Psychological Self actualisation - fulfill one's potential Biological perspective : eysenck’s theory Fundamental basic superficial hierarchy of traits Role of genetics Traits vs state. Trait: consistent, long lasting thing about someone State: sometimes we feel something Problem with measuring as we cant see them so we can only ask people but they might not know or lie Big 5 How we describe a personality 1. Neuroticism : how likely to experience negative emotions 2. Extraversion 3. Agreeableness 4. Conscientiousness : on time 5. Openness to experience Personality assessment Need standardization : how do people act who have disorders Objective tests: limited response possibility (MMPI) projective tests: no limit on response (unblock, TAT) Chapter 12. Social behavior Personal perception : how we interpret information Person perception : process of forming impressions of others First impression: based on looks Easily formed 3 seconds Difficult to change Importance of appearance : people are drawn to attractiveness Non-verbal communication Impressions of groups Stereotypes: generalizations of someone based on their membership in a particular group Overgeneralization Prejudices : negative prejudgements Discrimination : treating people differently because of their membership in a particular group Modern racism: subtle and comes out behind closed doors Ingroups - groups u are in, us. Outgroups - others Subjectivity in person perception Illustory correlation : finding truth to stereotypes Competition between groups: summer camp Social persuasion Conforming - sheep arch study (lines) Compliance - change behavior due to direct response Foot in door Door in face That not all Obedience - authority Attributions - learned likes and dislikes that can influence our behavior 3 components. 1. Emotional - feelings related to something 2. Cognitive - thinking, logical 3. Behavioral - how we behave about the matter: cognitive dissonance Explicit attitudes : consciously and can describe Implicit attitudes : covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle automatic responses over which one has little conscious control over. Attributions - assign causes to behavior Internal attribution : personal disposition, traits, abilities, and feelings External attributions : situation, environment Fundamental attribution error : observer bias, favors internal attributions in explaining others behavior Self serving bias : tendency to attribute ones own behavior on external Individualism : putting personal goal ahead Collectivism : putting group goals ahead’ Social persuasion Persuasion : want to change peoples mind Communicator : messenger - Credible (who) - Trustworthy - Similarity (favor things similar to us) message : how the persuasion is done - Central route - facts and data - Peripheral route - positive association - Fear appeal Audience  - Intelligence - Self esteem Interpersonal attraction Proximity : mere exposure effect Physical attraction Similarity Equity : fair, equal Reciprocity : liking those who show they like us Strong marriages Mutual, high level of disclosure Perception of equitable relationships Liking and respecting each other Willingness to work on relationships Passionate love - intense emotion Companionate love - warm, trusting STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Conscious is awareness, preconscious is easily accessible, unconscious is hidden 2. The life and instinct according to freud are the will to live and the will to die 3. The id operates on the pleasure principle (b) 4. The ego balances the desires of the ID and the moral constraints of the superego 5. Oral stage is characterized by oral stimulation 6. Fixation in freud's stages of development is an unresolved conflict leading to behaviors from earlier stages 7. Repression involves pushing painful thoughts out of awareness 8. Carl Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious includes inherited ancestral memories 9. Alfred adler emphasized the need for social connection and overcoming inferiority 10. Skinner's perspective on personality suggests it is constantly changing based on learned behaviors 1. Person perception is how we perceive others 2. Believing all elderly people are bad drivers is a stereotype 3. The fundamental attribution error refers to overestimating the influence of internal factors on other’s behavior 4. The self service bias involves attributing success to internal attribution and failures to external 5. The central route involves presenting facts and logical arguments 6. Mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to someone makes us like them more 7. High level of mutual disclosure and respect 8. Implicit attitude are subconscious and revealed through autonomic res[pmses  9. Obedience is following orders from an authority figure 10. An example of foot in door technique of compliance is asking for a small favor first to increase the likelihood of a larger request 1. According to maslows hierarchy of needs psychological, such as water, food and air needs come first 2. Self concept is best described as our understanding and beliefs about ourselves 3. Taking out frustration from work on a friend is an example of displacement 4. Unconditional positive regard is respect and value regardless of ones behavior. Carl rogers idea to become your ideal self Our first impression of somebody may influence the way we treat that person and they, in turn, may react in accordance with the way they are bing treated. This can Id is physical pleasure and immediate need for gratification Chapter 13. Stress, Coping, and health Stress : any circumstances that threaten one’s well being and tax one’s coping abilities (often self imposed) Subjective appraisal - what you perceive as threatening Primary appraisal - weather its relevant to you Secondary appraisal - can you cope with it Categories of stress 1. Catastrophies 2. Major life events 3. Daily hassels - most common “microstressor” Four principles (types) 1. Frustration 2. Conflict - approach approach, avoidance avoidance, approach avoidance Symptoms of stress Difficult conventration Headaches Upset stomach Apathy - a state of giving Responding to stress 1. Emotionally 2. Physiologically - autonomic arousal (hormonal fluctiation), - general adaption syndrome: inital alarm (fight or flight), resistance (bod tries to return to normal), exhaustion (imparis judgement) 3. Behavioral - coping a. Problem focused (fixable issues) b. Emotion focused c. Proactive (before stress) Stress and physical health More stress - carony heart disorder ( leading cause of death) Type A perosnality (competative, hostile, time urgent) Stress weakens immune systen chapter 14. Psychological disorders Abnormal behavior Medical model says its a disease Criteria for abnormal clssification (can have 1 - 3) Deviance (unacceptable from society) Maladoative (inhibits your ability to function) Personal distres Classification os disorders: diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 5thed Anxiety: more common in females. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) - exaggerated worrying all the time Phobias: an intense fear of soemthing that interferes with life usually irrational Panic disorders: sudden onset of intense fear and overwhelming anxiety Aggrophobia : fear of going our into public places, associated with panic disorder OCD : obsession (repative intrusive thoughts) - compuslions (actions that one feel forced to carry out) gardual onset PTSD: onset follows a traumatic event, intrusive sumprotns (memory keep coming back), persistent avoidance, negative alteration, increased arousal Dissositative disorders: distruption in sence of identity Dissosiative amnesia - forgotten block of time of life events, follows large amounts of stress Dissociative fogue - forgotten parts of identity causing one to end up something unknown Dissociative identity disorder - multiple personality that live in one person Mood disorders. Majpr depressive disorder - 5 + symptoms Reactive depression - external factors Endogenous depression - internal or biological factors Bipolar disorder: periods of depression and maniac Bipolar 1 - more mania Bipolar 2 - more depression Schitohrenic disprder : split with reality Delusions - false beliefs that are out of touch with reality Hallucinations - most commonly auditory Flat affects / inappropriate emotional reactions disorganization , speach patterns Deterioration in adaptive behavior Autistic disorder : significant disruption in social interactions, no interests in spcialaizing, no eyecontact, non verbal communication