PSI127 Introduction To Psychology I Week 1 - 2024-2025 Fall PDF

PSI127 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY I WEEK - 1 2024 - 2025 Fall Dr. Özge Bozkurt  Outline Modern Perspectives ◦ Tips for studying ◦ ◦ What is psychology?...

PSI127 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY I WEEK - 1 2024 - 2025 Fall Dr. Özge Bozkurt  Outline Modern Perspectives ◦ Tips for studying ◦ ◦ What is psychology? ◦ Psychodynamic ◦ History of psychology ◦ Behavioral ◦ Wundt and Objective Introspection ◦ Humanistic ◦ Titchener and Structuralism ◦ Cognitive ◦ William James and Functionalism ◦ Sociocultural ◦ Three influential approach in earlier ◦ Biopsychological decades: ◦ Evolutionary ◦ Gestalt ◦ Psychological Professionals ◦ Psychoanalysis ◦ Behaviorism 2  Tips for Studying The Dunning-Kruger Effect ◦ Overestimation of your knowledge in a specified domain ◦ People tend to be unaware of the limits of their knowledge and expertise. ◦ Overestimate their expertise and talent, thinking they are doing just fine when, in fact, they are doing quite poorly ◦ The study: Actual exam scores and students’ guesses about their scores were compared. Dunning et al., 2003 3  Tips for Studying ◦ Actual exam scores and students’ guesses about their scores were compared. ◦ How many points do you think you'll get on the exam? ◦ Results: Perceived Score Actual Score Dunning et al., 2003 4  Tips for Studying 1. Be aware what you know and what you do not know (metacognition) 2. Be aware what you know about specific topics! Perceived Score Actual Score Dunning et al., 2003 5  Tips for Studying ◦ Forgetting: failure in the recognition or retrieval of previously encoded information Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve ◦ Ebbinghaus tried to memorize nonsense memory for meaningless, nonsense syllables ◦ Memory for these items declined as the retention interval increased ◦ Within an hour almost half of the information is lost Image was taken from Smith & Kosslyn, 2017 ◦ Within a day almost 60-70% of the information is lost 6 Smith & Kosslyn, 2017 - Nobel  Tips for Studying ◦ Forgetting: failure in the recognition or retrieval of previously encoded information ◦ To prevent forgetting: paying attention during encoding (learning), rehearsal, and elaboration Image was taken from Smith & Kosslyn, 2017 7  Tips for Studying ◦ READ ◦ WAIT ◦ SUMMARIZE “The best way to remember something is to produce it” 8  Tips for Studying How do “good readers” read? 1. Connect the information with each other 2. Visualize the things they learned in their mind ◦ also see the method of loci 3. Outline the material, and then summarize it with their own words 9  Tips for Studying Consolidation: Strengthening the Memory ◦ When you create and store new long- term memories, they don’t instantly appear in your brain in a well-established form ◦ Instead, we need consolidation, the more permanent establishment of memories in the neural architecture. ◦ Sleep is very important for consolidation Image was taken from: Aschraft & Radvansky, 2013 10 Aschraft & Radvansky, 2013; Smith & Kosslyn, 2017 – Nobel  Why study psychology? ◦ Self - awareness ◦ Understanding the connection between body and brain/mind ◦ How to improve yourself in learning and memory ◦ How to deal with stress ◦ How psychological studies conducted (so you can identify flawed research) ◦ Critical thinking about the world 11 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  What is psychology? ◦ Is it just a study of how humans behave? ◦ No! ◦ The study of what human and animals do ◦ What happens in their bodies and their brains 12 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 What is psychology? - Definition https://wall.sli.do/event/vyKnvvsN9D8zq73KqLJXZ8 ?section=dfc4e054-0dfd-444b-a24c-3b5f5a35d69e 13  What is psychology? - Definition ◦ Psychology is the scientific study of (1) behavior and (2) mental processes. ◦ Behavior includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions: ◦ E.g., such as talking, facial expressions, and movement ◦ Mental processes refers to all the internal, covert (hidden) activity of our minds ◦ E.g. thinking, feeling, and remembering 14 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  History of Psychology ◦ Psychology is a relatively new science and only about 145 years old ◦ In 1879 first psychology laboratory established ◦ Previously medical doctors, philosophers, physiologists think about why people and animal do things they do ◦ Plato, Aristotle, and Descartes tried to understand the human mind and its connection to the physical body ◦ Medical doctors and physiologists wondered the connection btw body and brain ◦ Fechner and Helmholtz (physiologists = medical doctors) conducted experiments on perception 15 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Helmholtz’s Experiment Taken from Wright, R. D., & Ward, L. M. (2008). Orienting of attention. Oxford University Press. p4  Helmholtz’s Experiment We could attend the points without looking at them! Taken from Wright, R. D., & Ward, L. M. (2008). Orienting of attention. Oxford University Press. p.5  History of Psychology Early Pioneers in Psychology ◦ Wilhelm Wundt ◦ Edward Titchener ◦ William James 18 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Wundt and Objective Introspection ◦ In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt (a physiologist) established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany ◦ Applied the scientific principles to the study of the human mind. ◦ Students taught to study the structure of human mind 19 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Wundt and Objective Introspection ◦ Believed that consciousness, the state of being aware of external events, could be broken down into structures: ◦ thoughts ◦ experiences ◦ emotions, and other basic elements ◦ Objective Introspection: to inspect elements of consciousness and think objectively about their own thoughts ◦ E.g., Wundt give a student a rock and ask them to describe all of their feelings in response. ◦ Wundt's pioneering work introduced objectivity and measurement to psychology. ◦ Wundt is known as the father of psychology. 20 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Titchener and Structuralism In America ◦ Wundt's student, Edward Titchener, brought Wundt's ideas to Cornell University ◦ Titchener expanded on Wundt's concepts with a focus on the mind's structure. ◦ Believed experiences could be broken down into individual emotions and sensations. ◦ Coined "structuralism”: breaking down consciousness into basic elements. ◦ Extended objective introspection to thoughts, not just physical sensations. ◦ Students would introspect about concepts like the color blue, exploring associations and perceptions. ◦ What is blue? 21 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Titchener and Structuralism In America ◦ The dominant force in the early days of psychology ◦ The structuralists were fighting among themselves over just which key elements of experience were the most important ◦ But it died out in the early 1900s 22 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  William James and Functionalism ◦ Harvard University, in the late 1870s, became the first American school to offer psychology classes. ◦ William James, taught these classes, transitioning from anatomy to psychology. ◦ He authored one of the first psychology textbook: "Principles of Psychology" in 1890 23 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  William James and Functionalism ◦ Definition of attention: “Everyone knows what attention is. It is taking possession of the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seems several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies a withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.” 24 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  William James and Functionalism ◦ Unlike Wundt and Titchener, he focused on the practical importance of consciousness in daily life. ◦ Functionalism: how the mind enables people to function in the real world. ◦ How people work, play, etc. ◦ Influenced by Charles Darwin’s natural selection concept ◦ Behavioral traits, like physical traits, to aid in survival and adaptation. ◦ E.g., avoiding the eyes of others in an elevator=> protecting one’s personal space ◦ Behaviors promoting survival would be passed on to offspring. ◦ No longer dominant in psychology. ◦ Its influence persists in educational and industrial/organizational psychology. ◦ Functionalism also contributed to the development of evolutionary psychology. 25 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Summary ◦ Tips for study? ◦ Dunning-Kruger Effect ◦ Forgetting ◦ Read-wait-summarize strategy ◦ How good readers read? ◦ Consolidation ◦ What is psychology? ◦ What are behavior and mental processes? ◦ What is objective introspection and who was the main figure? ◦ What is structuralism and who was the main figure? ◦ What is functionalism and who was the main figure? ◦ Who establish the first psychology laboratory? ◦ Who is the author of Principles of Psychology? 26  Three Influential Approaches (in earlier decades): 1. Gestalt Psychology 2. Psychoanalysis 3. Behaviorism 27 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  1. Gestalt Psychology ◦ Max Wertheimer ◦ Opposed structuralism ◦ Psychological events can't be fully understood by breaking them down. ◦ Perceiving and sensing cannot be broken down ◦ E.g., Take a smartphone apart: unconnected bits and pieces, no longer phone ◦ E.g., Melody is composed of individual notes, but notes alone are meaningless ◦ A holistic approach: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." 28 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  1. Gestalt Psychology ◦ Focusing sensation and perception. ◦ People tend to seek out patterns ◦ Focus on whole patterns rather than small pieces ◦ Gestalt principles influence cognitive psychology (perception, learning, memory, thought processes, and problem-solving) ◦ The Gestalt approach also plays a role in psychological therapy: Gestalt therapy 29 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  2. Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud was a neurologist Nervous disorders without physical cause => Freud claimed that it must be in the mind Freud introduced the unconscious mind to understand patients with unexplained nervous disorders. Repressed urges and desires in the unconscious led to disorders. All behavior stems from unconscious motivation Importance of early childhood’s (first 6 years) role in personality development Psychosexual stages of development Psychoanalysis: the theory of personality and insight therapy based on Freud’s ideas Emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts The base for modern psychotherapy 30 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  2. Psychoanalysis Psychotherapy and psychoanalysis are not the same thing Psychotherapy: trained psychological professional helps a person gain insight into and change his or her behavior Freud's ideas, though modified, remain influential to a certain extent, particularly in psychoanalysis. But there are also criticisms of psychoanalysis for being sexist and not falsifiable 31 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  3. Behaviorism ◦ Ivan Pavlov: conditioned reflexes in dogs, showing a learned response to a new stimulus. ◦ Saliva response to the sound of a metronome ◦ John B. Watson introduced behaviorism emphasizing observable and measurable behavior. ◦ Not interested in consciousness or mind ◦ Rejected Freud's idea of unconscious motivation. ◦ E.g., Freud saw phobias as stemming from repressed conflicts, while Watson claimed that phobias were learned through conditioning. ◦ Little Albert Experiment: conditioned phobia for furry animals ◦ All behavior is a result of a stimulus-response relationship 32 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  3. Behaviorism ◦ Watson: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (1930)” 33 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Modern Perspectives: 1. Psychodynamic 2. Behavioral 3. Humanistic 4. Cognitive 5. Sociocultural 6. Biopsychological 7. Evolutionary 34 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Modern Perspectives: 1. Psychodynamic 2. Behavioral 3. Humanistic 4. Cognitive 5. Sociocultural 6. Biopsychological 7. Evolutionary 35 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  1. Psychodynamic ◦ Freud's theory persists in therapy, but its prevalence has diminished in recent decades. ◦ Modern version of psychoanalysis ◦ Focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind behavior other than sexual motivations. ◦ Modern psychodynamic perspective: ◦ Keeps the unconscious mind and early experiences ◦ But focus less on sexual motivations and more on self-development and interpersonal relationships. ◦ Neurobiology tries to explore the connection between the brain and psychodynamic concepts. 36 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  2. Behavioral ◦ Behaviorism, introduced by figures like John B. Watson and later B. F. Skinner, remains influential. ◦ Skinner=> operant conditioning: learning of voluntary behaviors through reinforcement. ◦ Behaviors followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced. ◦ E.g., a child rewarded with attention for crying is likely to repeat the behavior. ◦ --Five newer perspectives emerged within the last 60 years apart from psychodynamic and behavioral perspectives.-- 37 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  3. Humanistic ◦ Humanism: "third force" in psychology ◦ Emerged as a reaction to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism. ◦ Against to psychoanalytic focus on sexual development and behaviorism's emphasis on external forces. ◦ Focused on individuals' capacity to shape their own lives, emphasizing free will and the pursuit of self-actualization. ◦ Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers were early founders of humanism. ◦ Today: humanistic psychotherapy promotes self-understanding and self- improvement. 38 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  4. Cognitive ◦ Inspired by Gestalt ◦ In the 1960s, cognitive psychology gained prominence: Cognitive Revolution ◦ Thanks to advances in computer technology and discoveries in biological psychology ◦ Focus on how people think, remember, store, and use information. ◦ Memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem-solving, language, and learning. ◦ Experimental methods ◦ Cognitive Neuroscience subfield: brain and nervous system during cognitive processes. ◦ Tools: MRI, fMRI, PET ◦ Continuous evolution with technological and scientific advancements. 39 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  5. Sociocultural ◦ Combines social psychology (groups, social roles, and rules) and cultural psychology (cultural norms, values, and expectations). ◦ Examines individuals or larger groups (i.e., culture). ◦ Don’t you behave differently around your family members than you do around your friends? ◦ Behavior is seen as the product of learning and shaping within the context of one's family, social group, and culture. ◦ Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: focuses on sociocultural concepts in children's cognitive development. 40 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  5. Sociocultural ◦ Social norms, class differences, and ethnic identity affect behavior and thinking ◦ Cross-cultural research: compares behaviors or issues in at least two or more cultures. ◦ Differences and similarities in human behavior across diverse social and cultural settings ◦ Compares influences of environment (culture and training) and heredity (genetics). ◦ US vs. India => bystander effect, the same result 41 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  6. Biopsychological ◦ Attributes human and animal behavior and mental processes to biological events occurring in the body ◦ Causes of behavior: hormones, nervous system, heredity, brain chemicals, tumors, diseases ◦ Interested in: sleep, emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, memory, disorders, etc. ◦ Identifies biological factors in disorders 42 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  6. Biopsychological Examples: ◦ Human sexual orientation may be related to biological factors: ◦ Baby’s exposure in the womb to testosterone, especially in females ◦ Birth order of male children: having more older brothers => the more likely to have a homosexual orientation ◦ Schizophrenia: mental disorder involving delusions, hallucinations, distorted thinking ◦ Genetic influences => A gene plays a role in removing extra connections between neurons ◦ Alzheimer's disease: brain changes may start 20 years prior to clinical symptoms 43 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  7. Evolutionary ◦ Focuses on biological bases for universal mental characteristics all humans share. ◦ Explains general mental strategies and traits, e.g,: ◦ Why we lie ◦ How attractiveness affects mate selection ◦ Why we fear snakes ◦ Views mind as information-processing machines designed by natural selection. ◦ Mind is designed to solve problems faced in early human evolution (hunters and gatherers). ◦ E.g., Avoiding bitter-tasting substances as an evolved adaptive behavior. 44 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Modern Perspectives ◦ Some more scientific (e.g., behavioral, cognitive), others more based on human behavior (e.g., psychodynamic, humanistic). ◦ No single perspective has all the answers. ◦ Eclectic approach: Utilizes bits and pieces of multiple perspectives to best fit a particular situation. 45 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  46 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Psychological Professionals And Areas of Specialization ◦ Psychology is a large field, and the many professionals working within it have different training, different focuses, and may have different goals from the typical psychologist ◦ Psychologists work in many different vocational settings. ◦ Not all psychologists are trained to do counseling or therapy ◦ Psychologists who are in counseling or therapy must be licensed to practice in their states in the US). ◦ A psychiatrist has a medical degree and is a physician who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment (including the prescription of medications) of psychological disorders. 47 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Psychological Professionals And Areas of Specialization ◦ In Turkey: ◦ 1219 sayılı Kanun (Sağlık Hizmetleri ile İlgili): ◦ a) Klinik psikolog; psikoloji veya psikolojik danışma ve rehberlik lisans eğitimi üzerine klinik ortamlarda gerekli pratik uygulamaları içeren klinik psikoloji yüksek lisansı veya diğer lisans eğitimleri üzerine psikoloji veya klinik psikoloji yüksek lisansına ilaveten klinik psikoloji doktorası yapan sağlık meslek mensubudur. ◦ Klinik psikolog, nesnel ve yansıtmalı ölçüm araçları, gözlem ve görüşme teknikleri kullanarak psikolojik değerlendirme ile uluslararası teşhis ve sınıflama sistemlerinde hastalık olarak tanımlanmayan ve Sağlık Bakanlığının da uygun bulduğu durumlarda psikoterapi işlemleri yapar. Hastalık durumlarında ise ancak ilgili uzman tabibin teşhisine ve tedavi için yönlendirmesine bağlı olarak psikoterapi uygulamalarını gerçekleştirir. ◦ Psikoloji lisans eğitimi üzerine ilgili mevzuatına göre Sağlık Bakanlığınca uygun görülen psikolojinin tıbbi uygulamalarıyla ilgili sertifikalı eğitim almış ve yeterliliğini belgelemiş psikologlar sertifika alanlarındaki tıbbi uygulamalarda görev alabilirler. ◦ Uzman tabibin teşhis ve yönlendirmesiyle ya da bağımsız olarak yapılabilecek mesleki uygulamalar, bu bentteki prensipler çerçevesinde Sağlık Bakanlığınca çıkarılacak yönetmelikle belirlenir. 48 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization 49 Ciccarelli & White, 2017 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization Source: Sümer, N., Helvaci, E., & Misirlisoy, M. (2013). Employability of psychology graduates and their job satisfaction in Turkey: An online survey. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 12(2), 189-195. 50 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization Source: Sümer, N., Helvaci, E., & Misirlisoy, M. (2013). Employability of psychology graduates and their job satisfaction in Turkey: An online survey. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 12(2), 189-195. 51  Summary ◦ What are three influential approaches? ◦ What is Gestalt approach? ◦ What is psychoanalysis? ◦ What is behaviorism? ◦ Modern perspectives: ◦ What is psychodynamic perspective? ◦ What is behavioral perspective? ◦ What is humanistic perspective? ◦ What is cognitive perspective? ◦ What is sociocultural perspective? ◦ What is biopsychological perspective? ◦ What is evolutionary perspective? ◦ What is eclectic approach? 52 Ciccarelli & White, 2017  Debate Time! “Do you believe that violence is a part of human nature? Is violent behavior something that can someday be removed from human behavior or, at the very least, be controlled?” (taken from book) Two opposing groups: Group 1: It is a part of human nature (start group) Group 2: It is not a part of human nature ◦ We will have 15 minutes break and during this time selected groups should be prepared for the debate. ◦ The debate should approximately last 15-20 minutes ◦ The rest of the class could prepare questions to elevate the debate via slido.com https://wall.sli.do/event/vyKnvvsN9D8zq73KqLJXZ8?section=dfc4e054- 0dfd-444b-a24c-3b5f5a35d69e 53  The Common Fallacies Used in the Debates ◦ Ad Hominem: Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. For example, "You can't trust her opinion on climate change because she isn't a scientist." ◦ Straw Man: Misrepresenting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack. For example, "My opponent wants to reduce military spending, which means they want to leave us defenseless." ◦ Appeal to Authority: Asserting that a claim is true simply because an authority figure believes it to be true, without providing further evidence. For example, "A famous actor says this diet works, so it must be effective." ◦ False Dilemma (Either/Or Fallacy): Presenting two options as the only possibilities when more exist. For example, "You're either with us or against us." 54 Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-common-logical-fallacies-used-in-debates  The Common Fallacies Used in the Debates ◦ Slippery Slope: Arguing that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in a significant impact, often negative. For example, "If we allow students to redo tests, soon they’ll expect to redo every assignment." ◦ Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question): The argument assumes what it is trying to prove. For example, "I’m trustworthy because I always tell the truth." ◦ Hasty Generalization: Making a broad conclusion based on a small or unrepresentative sample. For example, "I met two rude people from that city, so everyone from there must be rude." ◦ Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause): Assuming that because one event followed another, the first event caused the second. For example, "I wore my lucky socks, and then we won the game; therefore, my socks caused the victory." 55 Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-common-logical-fallacies-used-in-debates  The Common Fallacies Used in the Discussions/Debates ◦ Appeal to Emotion: Manipulating an emotional response instead of presenting a logical argument. For example, "You should support this policy because it will help poor children." ◦ Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant information into the argument to distract from the main issue. For example, "Why worry about climate change when there are so many homeless people?" 56 Source: https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-common-logical-fallacies-used-in-debates  References -Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N. (2017). Psychology: An exploration. Pearson. -Smith, E. E., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2013). Cognitive Psychology: Mind and Brain: Pearson New International Edition. Pearson Higher Ed. -Ashcraft, M. H., & Radvansky, G. A. (2013). Cognition. International Edition. Pearson Education. 57