Psych 120A Fall 2024 Practice Exam PDF

Psych 120A (Fall 2024) – PRACTICE EXAM 1. Which of the following is an example of the availability heuristic? A. Estimating the frequency of plane crashes based on recent news coverage. B. Deciding to invest in a company based on extensive market research. C. Using logical reaso...

Psych 120A (Fall 2024) – PRACTICE EXAM 1. Which of the following is an example of the availability heuristic? A. Estimating the frequency of plane crashes based on recent news coverage. B. Deciding to invest in a company based on extensive market research. C. Using logical reasoning to solve a mathematical problem. D. Believing a claim because it fits with prior knowledge about the world. E. Ignoring statistical information in favor of personal anecdotes. 2. A participant is asked to rotate a mental image of a cube by 90 degrees. Which of the following is most likely true about their performance on this task? A. Reaction time will remain constant regardless of the degree of rotation. B. Reaction time will decrease as the degree of rotation increases. C. Reaction time will increase as the degree of rotation increases. D. Reaction time will be unrelated to the degree of rotation. E. Performance will be determined solely by propositional representations. 3. According to prototype theory, which of the following statements is correct? A. All exemplars in a category are stored individually. B. A category is represented by the average of its members. C. A category’s boundaries are determined by necessary and sufficient conditions. D. Categories do not rely on similarity between members. E. Prototypes exist as real-world entities. 4. Which of the following is an example of functional fixedness? A. Using a chair as a ladder when hanging decorations. B. Struggling to realize a matchbox can be used as a candle holder. C. Successfully solving a problem after stepping away for a break. D. Grouping objects based on color rather than function. E. Focusing on a single solution to a problem despite multiple options. 5. Which of the following reasoning tendencies is illustrated by the conjunction fallacy? A. People rely on base rates when estimating probabilities. B. People often conflate correlation with causation. C. People find it easier to evaluate individual probabilities than joint probabilities. D. People systematically avoid errors in probabilistic reasoning. E. People tend to judge a specific combination of events as more likely than a single, broader event. 6. In Shepard and Metzler’s mental rotation experiment, what did the results demonstrate? A. Mental imagery operates like abstract symbols rather than pictures. B. People cannot accurately rotate mental images without external aids. C. Mental rotation is functionally equivalent to physically rotating objects. D. Reaction times are unaffected by changes in orientation. E. There is no consistent relationship between rotation angle and response time. 7. Which of the following is true of deductive reasoning? A. It involves generalizing from specific observations to broad conclusions. B. It guarantees the truth of a conclusion if the premises are true. C. It is based entirely on heuristics rather than formal rules. D. It involves assessing the likelihood of an event based on past evidence. E. It leads to valid conclusions only when guided by System 1 processing. 8. The Wason 4-card selection task demonstrates: A. Confirmation bias. B. Functional fixedness. C. Anchoring and adjustment. D. Availability heuristic. E. Inductive reasoning. 9. In Kosslyn’s image scanning experiments, what finding supported the analog representation hypothesis? A. Reaction times decreased as scanning distances increased. B. Participants consistently failed to form mental images. C. Reaction times increased with longer scanning distances. D. The mental images participants formed were propositional, not analog. E. The experiments showed no consistent relationship between scanning and distance. 10. Which of the following correctly describes the distinction between System 1 and System 2 processing? A. System 1 is slow and deliberate, while System 2 is fast and intuitive. B. System 1 is error-prone and System 2 always produces correct answers. C. System 1 operates automatically, while System 2 requires conscious effort. D. Both systems are equally likely to rely on heuristics. E. Both systems operate independently without interacting. 11. Which of the following best demonstrates base rate neglect? A. Judging that a person is an engineer based solely on a description of their personality, despite knowing the population contains 70% lawyers and 30% engineers. B. Choosing a treatment based on its success rate without considering the risks involved. C. Estimating that smoking is safe because you know one smoker who lived to 100. D. Believing that winning the lottery is more common than it is, after reading about a winner. E. Assuming two events are more likely together than either alone. 12. In a study of mental imagery, participants were asked to imagine a rabbit next to a bee or next to an elephant. What was the key finding? A. Participants were unable to create detailed mental images of the rabbit. B. Participants could answer questions about the rabbit equally quickly in both cases. C. Participants answered questions about the rabbit faster when it was next to the bee. D. Participants relied solely on propositional knowledge to describe the rabbit. E. Participants formed identical mental images regardless of context. 13. In the Tower of Hanoi problem, which strategy best describes how people typically solve the task? A. Using the hill-climbing heuristic to make constant progress toward the goal. B. Creating subgoals to address smaller steps in the problem. C. Relying on trial and error to solve the problem. D. Using functional fixedness to limit solution pathways. E. Applying propositional reasoning to find an optimal solution. 14. Which of the following best describes the relationship between heuristics and cognitive biases? A. Heuristics are deliberate strategies designed to eliminate biases. B. Biases result from over-reliance on heuristics in decision-making. C. Heuristics always lead to incorrect conclusions. D. Biases and heuristics operate independently of one another. E. Cognitive biases occur only when heuristics are absent. 15. What did Smith and Blankenship (1991) find about the role of incubation in problem-solving? A. People solve problems less effectively after taking breaks. B. Incubation allows people to suppress misleading information. C. Incubation has no measurable effect on problem-solving ability. D. Incubation only works for insight-based problems. E. People generate completely novel solutions during incubation. 16. According to Wallas (1926), which stage of the creative process involves setting the problem aside and allowing unconscious processes to work? A. Preparation. B. Illumination. C. Verification. D. Incubation. E. Inspiration. 17. In the Wason 4-card selection task, participants often fail because: A. They focus too much on confirming the rule. B. They misunderstand the instructions. C. They overestimate the probability of rare events. D. They rely on propositional reasoning rather than logic. E. They ignore surface-level features of the cards. 18. The phenomenon of functional fixedness is best illustrated by: A. A participant who cannot use a frying pan as a hammer. B. A participant who chooses an incorrect card in the Wason task. C. A participant who believes two unrelated events are causally connected. D. A participant who underestimates probabilities due to heuristics. E. A participant who struggles to define a category prototype. 19. What did Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) find about insight problems? A. Feeling of warmth ratings gradually increase before solving insight problems. B. Insight problems involve a sudden “aha” moment without gradual progress. C. Insight problems are easier for individuals with higher IQ scores. D. Warmth ratings are an accurate predictor of problem-solving success. E. Incubation does not facilitate solving insight problems. 20. How does Prospect Theory explain risk-seeking behavior in the face of potential losses? A. People misinterpret probabilities when evaluating losses. B. People evaluate gains and losses relative to a reference point. C. People overestimate the likelihood of extreme losses. D. People are more influenced by the framing of gains than losses. E. People prefer certainty in all scenarios involving losses. 21. Which of the following best describes the relationship between the analog and propositional views of mental imagery? A. The analog view suggests images are stored as symbolic codes. B. The propositional view suggests mental images are equivalent to physical objects. C. Both A & B. D. The analog view is supported by findings from mental rotation tasks. E. None of the above. 22. Which of the following is NOT an example of inductive reasoning? A. Generalizing from specific observations to form a hypothesis. B. Inferring that all swans are white after observing several white swans. C. Using specific examples to update a statistical model. D. Concluding that all cars in a parking lot are red after seeing only three red cars. E. Forming a logical conclusion based on a general rule. 23. The concept of “illusory covariation” explains which of the following phenomena? A. Believing that sugar causes hyperactivity based on anecdotal experiences. B. Overestimating the likelihood of rare events due to vivid media coverage. C. Ignoring statistical evidence in favor of surface-level similarities. D. Judging two events as unrelated despite strong statistical evidence. E. Focusing on unusual cases rather than typical patterns when drawing conclusions. 24. In Duncker’s tumor problem, participants often fail to find the correct solution because they: A. Ignore base rates when assessing the problem. B. Fixate on surface-level features and fail to draw structural analogies. C. Cannot visualize the physical outcome of their solution. D. Over-rely on propositional reasoning rather than analog representations. E. Believe the problem has no valid solution. 25. Which of the following correctly illustrates the framing effect? A. Preferring a certain $50 gain over a 50% chance of winning $100. B. Choosing a treatment described as “90% effective” over one described as “10% failure rate.” C. Both A & B. D. Ignoring probabilities in favor of vivid anecdotes. E. None of the above. 26. What did Bower (1970) demonstrate about the method of loci mnemonic? A. It is ineffective for memorizing abstract concepts. B. It helps people organize and recall lists of items. C. Participants who used it remembered significantly more items than controls. D. Both B & C. E. None of the above. 27. Which of the following is an example of belief bias? A. Accepting an invalid conclusion because it aligns with prior knowledge. B. Rejecting a valid conclusion because it conflicts with personal beliefs. C. Both A & B. D. Making a probabilistic judgment based on vivid examples. E. Overlooking evidence that challenges an existing stereotype. 28. In Kahneman and Tversky’s research, which heuristic best explains why people incorrectly judge a sequence like H-T-H-T-T-H to be more likely than H-H-H-T-T-T? A. Anchoring and adjustment. B. Availability heuristic. C. Representativeness heuristic. D. Confirmation bias. E. None of the above. 29. Which of the following findings supports the hypothesis that mental imagery is spatial in nature? A. Reaction times increase with greater distances in mental scanning tasks. B. Mental rotation results are consistent with physical object manipulation. C. Brain imaging studies show overlapping activation during mental imagery and visual perception. D. All of the above. E. None of the above. 30. Which of the following statements about System 1 and System 2 is correct? A. System 1 is intuitive and error-prone, while System 2 is deliberate and analytical. B. System 1 generates rapid responses that System 2 evaluates. C. System 2 always overrides System 1 when active. D. Both A & B. E. System 2 is faster and more efficient than System 1. 31. Which of the following best illustrates linguistic relativity? A. The idea that all humans share a universal grammar. B. A bilingual speaker perceives color categories differently depending on the language they are using. C. Children are born with the ability to acquire any language. D. Language acquisition depends entirely on environmental exposure. E. All of the above. 32. According to Rosch’s research on basic-level categories, which statement is correct? A. Basic-level categories are the most abstract level of categorization. B. Basic-level categories are used for specific, fine-grained distinctions. C. Basic-level categories maximize informativeness and distinctiveness. D. Basic-level categories are learned later than subordinate categories. E. None of the above. 33. Which of the following findings supports the propositional view of mental imagery? A. Reaction times increase with greater rotation angles in mental rotation tasks. B. Images can be described using abstract, language-like representations. C. People generate more vivid mental images when given visual cues. D. Mental scanning times increase with greater distances. E. None of the above. 34. In reasoning, which of the following describes the confirmation bias? A. Ignoring evidence that contradicts a hypothesis while seeking supporting evidence. B. Overestimating the probability of conjunctions of events. C. Relying on similarities between current and past events. D. Judging probabilities based on how easily examples come to mind. E. Using a mental shortcut to solve complex problems. 35. In problem solving, a well-defined problem is characterized by: A. The lack of a clear goal. B. A solution that requires insight rather than a systematic approach. C. Specific goals, constraints, and rules. D. The absence of intermediate steps toward a solution. E. The need for creative thinking to arrive at a solution. 36. Which of the following is a heuristic used in problem solving? A. Algorithmic reasoning. B. Hill-climbing strategy. C. Deductive reasoning. D. Eliminating interference. E. None of the above. 37. In Tversky and Kahneman’s research, what is/are the primary feature(s) of the representativeness heuristic? A. Estimating the probability of an event based on how typical it seems. B. Judging the likelihood of an event based on its emotional impact. C. Ignoring base rates when assessing probabilities. D. Both A & B. E. Both A & C. 38. Which of the following examples demonstrates a framing effect? A. Choosing a vaccine described as “90% effective” over one described as “10% failure rate.” B. Believing two events are causally related based on surface similarities. C. Relying on past experiences to solve a novel problem. D. Judging the frequency of an event based on media coverage. E. Ignoring statistical data in favor of anecdotal evidence. 39. In categorization, the exemplar theory suggests that: A. Categories are represented by the average or prototype of category members. B. Categories are stored as a collection of specific instances. C. All category members share necessary and sufficient features. D. Categorization does not rely on similarity between items. E. None of the above. 40. Which of the following problems requires insight to solve? A. Calculating the shortest path between two points. B. Rearranging matches to form a specific geometric shape. C. Following a step-by-step algorithm to solve an equation. D. Sorting items into predetermined categories. E. Recalling specific details of an event. 41. Which of the following is an example of a phoneme? A. The sound of “b” in “bat.” B. The meaning of the word “run.” C. A complete sentence expressing a thought. D. The prefix “un-” in “undo.” E. The syllable “bat” in the word “combat.” 42. Which of the following statements best describes categorical perception of phonemes? A. Phonemes are perceived as a continuous gradient, based on gradual changes in sound properties. B. Phonemes are perceived discretely, with abrupt boundaries between categories, even if physical changes are gradual. C. The ability to categorize phonemes develops only after extensive linguistic experience. D. Voice onset time (VOT) differences are perceived as gradual within each phoneme category. E. Categorical perception is unrelated to voice onset time (VOT). 43. In inductive reasoning, which factor most influences the strength of a conclusion? A. The emotional salience of the evidence. B. The representativeness of the examples. C. The availability of counterexamples. D. The semantic complexity of the premise. E. The number and diversity of observations. 44. Which of the following illustrates the concept of functional fixedness? A. Using a hammer as a weight to prop open a door. B. Failing to see that a screwdriver can be used as a lever. C. Solving a problem by dividing it into subproblems. D. Categorizing tools based on their intended purpose. E. Applying a learned strategy to a novel situation. 45. According to dual-process theories of reasoning, System 2 is characterized by: A. Intuitive and automatic processing. B. Quick decision-making with minimal cognitive effort. C. Logical and deliberate reasoning. D. Errors resulting from heuristic shortcuts. E. Judgments based on similarity to prior experiences. 46. In hierarchical categorization, a subordinate category would include which of the following examples? A. “Animal” B. “Bird” C. “Canary” D. “Living thing” E. “Vertebrate” 47. Which of the following is true of problem-solving by analogy? A. Analogies are typically drawn based on surface similarities. B. Experts are better at drawing structural analogies than novices. C. People always recognize useful analogies without hints. D. Analogical problem-solving is limited to well-defined problems. E. Analogical reasoning involves mental shortcuts rather than deep analysis. 48. Which of the following best demonstrates the gambler’s fallacy? A. Betting on red in roulette because black has come up five times in a row. B. Believing that a coin is “due” to land on heads after several flips of tails. C. Ignoring base rates when estimating probabilities. D. Overestimating the likelihood of rare events due to vividness. E. Both A & B. 49. In language production, what is the primary function of syntax? A. Assigning meaning to individual words. B. Organizing words into grammatically correct sentences. C. Facilitating the recognition of phonemes in speech. D. Connecting individual morphemes to semantic networks. E. Translating auditory information into visual imagery. 50. Which of the following best illustrates the importance of phrase structure rules in sentence parsing? A. The phrase “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously” is meaningless but syntactically correct. B. The sentence “The old man the boats” initially leads to misinterpretation due to a garden-path effect. C. Misunderstanding the sentence “The girl looked at the boy with the telescope” shows the role of ambiguity in syntax. D. Both A & B. E. Both B & C. Answer Key 1. A 11. A 21. D 31. B 41. A 2. C 12. C 22. E 32. C 42. B 3. B 13. B 23. A 33. B 43. E 4. B 14. B 24. B 34. A 44. B 5. E 15. B 25. C 35. C 45. C 6. C 16. D 26. D 36. B 46. C 7. B 17. A 27. C 37. E 47. B 8. A 18. A 28. C 38. A 48. E 9. C 19. B 29. D 39. B 49. B 10. C 20. B 30. D 40. B 50. E Detailed Explanations 1. A. Estimating the frequency of plane crashes based on recent news coverage. Correct: This is an example of the availability heuristic, which involves judging the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Plane crashes are often vividly reported in the media, making them more “available” in memory, even though they are statistically rare. Incorrect: B. This involves analytical reasoning, not a heuristic shortcut. C. Logical reasoning doesn’t rely on memory accessibility. D. This describes confirmation bias, where individuals favor evidence supporting pre-existing beliefs. E. While personal anecdotes may feel persuasive, this describes anecdotal reasoning rather than the availability heuristic. 2. C. Reaction time will increase as the degree of rotation increases. Correct: Shepard and Metzler’s mental rotation experiments demonstrated that reaction times increased linearly with the degree of rotation, supporting the idea that mental imagery operates similarly to physical object manipulation (analog representation). This finding indicates that mental images are spatially continuous and take time to “rotate.” Incorrect: A. Reaction times are not constant; they vary systematically with rotation angle. B. Reaction time increases, not decreases, with greater angles. D. Reaction times are directly related to rotation angle, contrary to this option. E. While propositional representations can describe mental processes, they do not account for these specific findings. 3. B. A category is represented by the average of its members. Correct: Prototype theory suggests that categories are organized around a prototype, which is a mental representation of the average or most typical member of the category. For example, a “bird” prototype might include features like wings, feathers, and the ability to fly, even if not all birds fit this description perfectly. Incorrect:  A. This describes exemplar theory, which involves storing individual instances rather than a generalized prototype. C. Necessary and sufficient conditions align with the classical view of categorization, not prototype theory. D. Similarity is central to prototype theory, contradicting this claim. E. Prototypes are mental constructs, not real-world entities. 4. B. Struggling to realize a matchbox can be used as a candle holder. Correct: Functional fixedness occurs when individuals fixate on an object’s typical use, preventing them from seeing alternative possibilities. In Duncker’s candle problem, participants often fail to see the matchbox as a potential candle holder because they are stuck viewing it as a container for matches. Incorrect: A. This example shows overcoming functional fixedness. C. This refers to incubation, where stepping away helps solve a problem. D. Grouping by color involves categorization, not functional fixedness. E. This describes fixation on a single solution but not necessarily linked to object use. 5. E. People tend to judge a specific combination of events as more likely than a single, broader event. Correct: The conjunction fallacy occurs when people believe that a specific combination of two events is more likely than one event alone, violating basic probability principles. For example, participants often rate “Linda is a feminist and a bank teller” as more probable than “Linda is a bank teller” due to representativeness, despite this being statistically impossible. Incorrect: A. This describes sensitivity to base rates, which people often ignore (not exemplified by the conjunction fallacy). B. This reflects a reasoning error about causal relationships, not the conjunction fallacy. C. While joint probabilities are indeed harder to evaluate, the conjunction fallacy involves judging a conjunction as more likely, not simply avoiding joint probability calculations. D. This is the opposite of what the conjunction fallacy illustrates; it highlights a systematic error in probabilistic reasoning. 6. C. Mental rotation is functionally equivalent to physically rotating objects. Correct: Shepard and Metzler’s findings suggest that mental imagery mirrors physical processes. Reaction times increased linearly with the angle of rotation, indicating that participants mentally rotate images in a way analogous to physical object manipulation. Incorrect: A. This contradicts the analog representation supported by the findings. B. Participants rotated images mentally without external aids. D. Reaction times increase with rotation angle, disproving this claim. E. Reaction times exhibit a consistent relationship with rotation angle, contrary to this option. 7. B. It guarantees the truth of a conclusion if the premises are true. Correct: Deductive reasoning involves deriving conclusions logically from given premises. For example, if all humans are mortal and Socrates is a human, then Socrates must be mortal. This guarantees the conclusion if the premises are valid. Incorrect: A. This describes inductive reasoning, which generalizes from specific cases.  C. Deductive reasoning is rule-governed, not heuristic-based. D. Inductive reasoning, not deductive, uses past evidence to assess likelihoods. E. System 1 is intuitive and less reliable for formal deduction. 8. A. Confirmation bias. Correct: The Wason 4-card task demonstrates confirmation bias, where participants look for evidence confirming a rule rather than seeking evidence to disprove it. For example, participants often turn cards consistent with the rule (“G” and “3”) instead of testing disconfirming cases. Incorrect: B. Functional fixedness involves object use, not reasoning. C. Anchoring relates to numerical estimations, not reasoning. D. Availability heuristic involves memory accessibility, not logical tests. E. This task involves deductive reasoning, not induction. 9. C. Reaction times increased with longer scanning distances. Correct: Kosslyn’s experiments supported the analog representation hypothesis, showing that participants took longer to mentally “scan” farther distances on an imagined map, mimicking physical spatial processes. Incorrect: A. Reaction times increased, not decreased, with distance. B. Participants successfully formed mental images. D. This option incorrectly suggests propositional dominance. E. There was a consistent relationship between distance and time. 10. C. System 1 operates automatically, while System 2 requires conscious effort. Correct: System 1 is fast, intuitive, and automatic, often using heuristics, while System 2 is slower, deliberate, and analytical. For example, answering “Emily’s father has three daughters…” with “June” (System 1) vs. correcting to “Emily” (System 2). Incorrect: A. This reverses the characteristics of the two systems. B. System 2 is more accurate but not always correct. D. System 1 relies more heavily on heuristics. E. The systems can interact, contradicting this claim. 11. A. Correct: Base rate neglect occurs when individuals ignore statistical base rates in favor of descriptive information. In this case, the population contains 70% lawyers, but the participant focuses on personality traits rather than probabilities. Incorrect: B. This involves ignoring risk assessment, not base rates. C. This is anecdotal reasoning, not base rate neglect. D. This describes the availability heuristic, not base rate neglect E. This describes the conjunction fallacy. 12. C. Correct: Participants answered faster when the rabbit was next to the smaller bee because the rabbit’s details were more prominent in this context, illustrating how mental image size affects processing.  Incorrect: A. Participants created detailed images when context allowed. B. Reaction times differed based on context. D. The results suggest analog representation, not solely propositional. E. Context influenced image details and reaction times. 13. B. Correct: People use the means-end analysis heuristic, breaking the problem into smaller subgoals, such as moving one disk at a time in the Tower of Hanoi task. Incorrect: A. Hill-climbing doesn’t always work, as it may require moving away from the goal. C. Trial and error is less systematic than means-end analysis. D. Functional fixedness limits problem-solving, not a helpful strategy. E. Propositional reasoning isn’t directly used in the task. 14. B. Correct: Biases emerge when heuristics, which simplify decision-making, are applied inappropriately. For example, the representativeness heuristic can lead to the conjunction fallacy. Incorrect: A. Heuristics are not deliberate strategies. C. Heuristics can lead to correct conclusions but are not guaranteed. D. Biases and heuristics are often interdependent. E. Biases often arise from heuristic use. 15. B. Correct: Smith and Blankenship showed that incubation helps by allowing participants to suppress misleading information, improving problem-solving success. Incorrect: A. Breaks improve performance, contrary to this claim. C. Incubation has measurable benefits. D. Incubation works for various problem types. E. Incubation enhances problem-solving by restructuring existing knowledge. 16. D. Correct: Incubation involves setting aside a problem, which allows unconscious processes to work, potentially leading to new insights. Incorrect: A. Preparation involves defining the problem. B. Illumination refers to the “aha” moment. C. Verification ensures the solution works. E. Inspiration overlaps with illumination but isn’t a defined stage. 17. A. Correct: Participants focus on confirming the rule rather than testing it, demonstrating confirmation bias. For example, they turn cards consistent with the rule but fail to seek disconfirming evidence.  Incorrect: B. The task’s instructions are clear, so misunderstanding is unlikely. C. This describes availability heuristics, not Wason task errors. D. Propositional reasoning isn’t central to this task. E. Surface features often mislead but aren’t ignored. 18. A. Correct: Functional fixedness is demonstrated when participants fail to use objects, like a frying pan, in unconventional ways, limiting problem-solving. Incorrect: B. Wason task errors relate to confirmation bias, not functional fixedness. C. This describes illusory correlation. D. This involves representativeness heuristic, not object use. E. This concerns prototype theory, not functional fixedness. 19. B. Correct: Insight problems often involve a sudden realization rather than gradual progress, as demonstrated in Metcalfe and Wiebe’s research. Incorrect: A. Warmth ratings don’t gradually increase in insight problems. C. Insight isn’t solely linked to IQ. D. Warmth ratings don’t predict accuracy. E. Incubation often aids insight problem-solving. 20. B. People evaluate gains and losses relative to a reference point. Correct: Prospect Theory, proposed by Kahneman and Tversky, explains that people evaluate outcomes relative to a specific reference point rather than in absolute terms. For losses, they tend to exhibit risk-seeking behavior, meaning they are more likely to gamble on uncertain losses than accept certain ones of the same value. This asymmetry highlights the psychological weight of losses, which feel more significant than equivalent gains. For example, people would rather risk a 50/50 chance of losing $100 than accept a guaranteed $50 loss. Incorrect: A. While people may misinterpret probabilities, this is not central to Prospect Theory. C. Overestimating extreme losses pertains to the availability heuristic rather than Prospect Theory. D. Prospect Theory highlights loss aversion more than gain framing, although framing effects are related. E. People often prefer certainty with gains but exhibit risk-seeking behavior with losses, contrary to this statement. 21. D. The analog view is supported by findings from mental rotation tasks. Correct: The analog view suggests that mental imagery operates similarly to physical perception, as demonstrated by the linear relationship between rotation angle and reaction time in mental rotation tasks. Incorrect: A. The analog view emphasizes spatial properties, not symbolic codes. B. This reverses the analog and propositional views. C. Neither A nor B accurately captures the views. E. This is incorrect because D is a valid statement. 22. E. Forming a logical conclusion based on a general rule. Correct: This describes deductive reasoning, not inductive reasoning. Deduction applies general rules to specific cases. Incorrect: A-D. These are examples of inductive reasoning, where generalizations are formed from specific observations. 23. A. Believing that sugar causes hyperactivity based on anecdotal experiences. Correct: Illusory covariation involves perceiving a relationship between two variables (e.g., sugar and hyperactivity) based on biased or anecdotal evidence, rather than statistical data. This belief arises from focusing on memorable cases or confirmatory evidence while ignoring contrary data. Incorrect: B. Overestimating the likelihood of rare events due to vivid media coverage. This describes the availability heuristic, where vivid examples in media make rare events seem more frequent than they are. C. Ignoring statistical evidence in favor of surface-level similarities. This reflects representativeness heuristic, where judgments are based on resemblance rather than statistical likelihood. D. Judging two events as unrelated despite strong statistical evidence. This refers to a neglect of covariation or base rate information, not the creation of illusory covariation. E. Focusing on unusual cases rather than typical patterns when drawing conclusions. This is an example of bias toward outliers or extreme cases, which can distort generalizations but doesn’t specifically involve illusory covariation. 24. B. Fixate on surface-level features and fail to draw structural analogies. Correct: Participants often fail to see the structural similarity between the tumor problem and analogous stories like the general and the fortress. Incorrect: A. Base rates are irrelevant here. C. The problem doesn’t rely on physical visualization. D. Participants typically rely on analog reasoning when cued. E. The problem has a valid solution, contrary to this belief. 25. C. Both A & B. Correct: The framing effect influences decisions based on how options are presented: A. People prefer certain gains over risky ones. B. Describing outcomes as “effective” vs. “failure” influences perception. Incorrect: D. Vivid anecdotes relate to availability, not framing. E. Both A and B illustrate framing. 26. D. Both B & C. Correct: Bower’s research on the method of loci demonstrated that: B. The method organizes items spatially. C. Participants using this mnemonic outperformed controls. Incorrect: A. It works well for abstract concepts when appropriately encoded.  E. Both B and C are valid. 27. C. Both A & B. Correct: Belief bias occurs when prior beliefs interfere with logical reasoning: A. Invalid conclusions are accepted if they seem believable. B. Valid conclusions are rejected if they contradict beliefs. Incorrect: D-E. These describe different biases unrelated to belief bias. 28. C. Representativeness heuristic. Correct: The representativeness heuristic explains why people expect small sequences of random events to look “random” (e.g., alternating heads and tails), even though all sequences are equally likely. Incorrect: A. Anchoring involves starting estimates from a salient value. B. Availability relates to memory ease, not sequence evaluation. D. Confirmation bias involves seeking evidence for pre-existing beliefs. E. This choice is incorrect because C is the best explanation. 29. D. All of the above. Correct: Spatial evidence for mental imagery includes: A. Increased reaction times for longer mental scanning distances. B. Consistent mental rotation findings. C. Neuroimaging studies showing overlap in visual and imagery processes. Incorrect: E. This is incorrect because A-C support the hypothesis. 30. D. Both A & B. Correct: System 1 generates intuitive, fast responses, and System 2 evaluates and overrides these responses when necessary: A. System 1 is intuitive but prone to errors. B. System 2 monitors and corrects System 1 outputs. Incorrect: C. System 2 doesn’t always override System 1. E. System 1 is faster, but System 2 is more deliberate. 31. B. A bilingual speaker perceives colors differently depending on the language they are using. Correct: Linguistic relativity suggests that language influences perception and cognition, as shown in studies of color perception among bilingual speakers. Incorrect: A. Universal grammar relates to language structure, not perception. C, D. These describe language acquisition, not linguistic relativity. E. Not all statements apply to linguistic relativity. 32. C. Basic-level categories maximize informativeness and distinctiveness. Correct: Basic-level categories (e.g., “chair,” “dog,” “car”) are at an optimal level of specificity where they balance being informative and distinct. They provide enough detail to distinguish objects (e.g., a “chair”  versus a “table”) while not being overly specific (e.g., “rocking chair”) or overly general (e.g., “furniture”). This makes them highly useful for communication and cognition. Incorrect: A. Basic-level categories are the most abstract level of categorization. This is incorrect because superordinate categories (e.g., “furniture,” “animal”) are more abstract and less informative than basic-level categories. B. Basic-level categories are used for specific, fine-grained distinctions. This describes subordinate categories (e.g., “Labrador” instead of “dog”) rather than basic-level categories, which strike a balance between generality and specificity. D. Basic-level categories are learned later than subordinate categories. Basic-level categories are typically learned earlier in development because they are more intuitive and cognitively salient. Subordinate categories are learned later as they require more specific knowledge. E. None of the above. This is incorrect because statement C accurately describes basic-level categories. 33. B. Images can be described using abstract, language-like representations. Correct: The propositional view suggests that mental images are stored as symbolic, language-like descriptions rather than analog visual representations. Incorrect: A, D. These support the analog view. C, E. These are unrelated or contradict the propositional view. 34. A. Ignoring evidence that contradicts a hypothesis while seeking supporting evidence. Correct: Confirmation bias involves selectively seeking evidence that confirms pre-existing beliefs while dismissing contradictory evidence. Incorrect: B-E. These describe other cognitive biases or heuristics. 35. C. Specific goals, constraints, and rules. Correct: A well-defined problem, such as a mathematical equation, has clear parameters and a definite solution path. Incorrect: A, B, D, E. These describe ill-defined or creative problems. 36. B. Hill-climbing strategy. Correct: Hill-climbing is a heuristic where each step is chosen to bring the problem solver closer to the goal state. Incorrect: A. Algorithms guarantee solutions but are not heuristics. C, D, E. These do not describe problem-solving heuristics. 37. E. Both A & C. Correct: Representativeness involves assessing probability based on how well an event matches a prototype (A), often leading to neglect of base rates (C). Incorrect: B, D. These describe other heuristics or reasoning errors. 38. A. Choosing a vaccine described as “90% effective” over one described as “10% failure rate.” Correct: The framing effect shows that decision-making is influenced by how information is presented, even if the options are logically equivalent. Incorrect: B-E. These do not demonstrate framing effects. 39. B. Categories are stored as a collection of specific instances. Correct: Exemplar theory suggests that categorization relies on comparisons to specific examples stored in memory. Incorrect: A. This aligns with prototype theory. C, D, E. These describe other theories or misconceptions. 40. B. Rearranging matches to form a specific geometric shape. Correct: Insight problems require sudden realization or “aha” moments to solve, often involving reframing the problem. Incorrect: A, C, D, E. These involve more systematic or memory-based approaches. 41. A. The sound of “b” in “bat.” Correct: A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language, such as the “b” sound in “bat.” Incorrect: B. Refers to semantics. C. Refers to syntax or discourse. D. Refers to morphemes. E. A syllable is larger than a phoneme. 42. B. Phonemes are perceived discretely, with abrupt boundaries between categories, even if physical changes are gradual. Correct: Categorical perception occurs when gradual physical changes, such as VOT differences, are perceived as discrete shifts between phoneme categories, with sharp boundaries separating them. Incorrect: A. Suggests perception mirrors gradual physical changes, which is false for categorical perception. C. Overstates the role of linguistic experience; some categorical perception abilities are innate. D. Misrepresents VOT perception, which is not gradual within categories. E. Incorrectly claims VOT is unrelated to categorical perception, despite being central to it. 43. E. The number and diversity of observations. Correct: Inductive reasoning is stronger when based on a large and diverse set of observations, as this increases the generalizability of conclusions. Incorrect: A-D. These factors are less influential or irrelevant to inductive strength. 44. B. Failing to see that a screwdriver can be used as a lever. Correct: Functional fixedness occurs when individuals struggle to use objects in novel ways beyond their typical functions. Incorrect: A, C, D, E. These involve alternative strategies or categorization but not functional fixedness. 45. C. Logical and deliberate reasoning. Correct: System 2 is characterized by effortful, analytic reasoning, as opposed to the intuitive processes of System 1. Incorrect: A, B, D, E. These describe System 1 or misconceptions about System 2. 46. C. “Canary” Correct: Subordinate categories are the most specific level in hierarchical categorization, such as “canary” within “bird.” Incorrect: A, B, D, E. These represent superordinate or basic-level categories. 47. B. Experts are better at drawing structural analogies than novices. Correct: Experts focus on deep, structural similarities rather than surface features, improving their ability to solve problems by analogy. Incorrect: A, C, D, E. These misrepresent analogical problem-solving. 48. E. Both A & B. Correct: The gambler’s fallacy involves incorrect beliefs about randomness, such as expecting outcomes to “even out” after a streak. Incorrect: C, D. These describe other cognitive biases unrelated to the gambler’s fallacy. 49. B. Organizing words into grammatically correct sentences. Correct: Syntax refers to the rules that govern how words are combined into sentences, ensuring grammatical structure. Incorrect: A. This describes semantics. C. Phoneme recognition pertains to phonology, not syntax. D. Semantic networks involve meaning, not grammatical structure. E. This is unrelated to syntax. 50. E. Both B & C. Correct:  B. “The old man the boats” demonstrates a garden-path sentence, where readers initially misinterpret the structure based on phrase structure rules and common word usage. This highlights how parsing heuristics can lead to temporary misinterpretations. C. “The girl looked at the boy with the telescope” illustrates syntactic ambiguity, as phrase structure rules allow multiple valid interpretations, showing the complexity of parsing ambiguous sentences. Incorrect: A. Demonstrates syntax and semantics independence but does not involve parsing challenges or garden-path effects. D. Option A does not directly show syntactic parsing difficulties or ambiguity.