Adolescent Cognitive Development PDF

Chapter 3: Adolescent Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Cognitive Development 1. Define the domains of cognition 2. Describe the development of knowledge during adolescence 3. Describe the development of reasoning and problem solving 4....

Chapter 3: Adolescent Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Cognitive Development 1. Define the domains of cognition 2. Describe the development of knowledge during adolescence 3. Describe the development of reasoning and problem solving 4. Define and describe metacognition and the development of metacognition 5. Describe executive function changes during adolescence 6. Describe problems with adolescent decision making 7. Describe the impact of substance abuse on adolescent cognition Cognitive Domain Definition Declarative Knowledge “Knowing that” or all the facts a person knows “Knowing how to” or all the skills a person knows both Procedural Knowledge cognitive and motor “Knowing why” or abstract criteria used to classify things or Conceptual Knowledge define relationships between things Logical reasoning in which a conclusion is shown to follow Deductive Reasoning necessarily from a sequence of premises Reasoning in which inferences and general principles are Inductive Reasoning drawn from specific observations and cases Reasoning characterized by extrapolations from the familiar Analogical Reasoning to the unfamiliar The process by which individuals attempt to overcome difficulties, achieve plans that move them from a starting Problem Solving situation to a desired goal, or reach conclusions through the use of higher mental functions Awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, often Metacognition involving a conscious attempt to control them The short-term maintenance and manipulation of information Working Memory necessary for performing complex cognitive tasks The suppression of urges in order to prevent incorrect Response Inhibition responding The capacity for objective appraisal and appropriately Cognitive Flexibility flexible action. Requires-task planning, initiation, shifting, monitoring the cognitive process of choosing between two or more Decision Making alternatives AKA “Hot executive function” Table 3-1. Cognitive functions that improve over adolescence and early adulthood. Cognitive development at all ages depends on educational and other experiences. When you studied the concept of intelligence you learned that there are a number of domains of intelligence and that the cognitive skills a person uses improve. You also learned that the use of cognitive skills promotes brain development and efficient processing of information. The operative rule is the more you know the more you can learn and the faster you can learn (Byrnes, 2003). While the synaptic pruning that takes place during adolescence makes the adult brain more efficient, individuals only know what they have been taught and have put the time and effort into learning. Cognitive development can be divided into domains of knowledge, reasoning and problem solving, metacognition, executive functions, and decision-making (Table 3-1). Development of Knowledge The “more you know, the more you can learn” rule says that the rate of increase in knowledge should be growing over middle childhood and adolescence. Educational research shows this is the case for declarative and procedural knowledge (Byrnes, 2003). Stepwise development may occur for conceptual or abstract reasoning (Dumontheil, 2014). Psychologists have long recognized that abstract reasoning or conceptual reasoning improves after puberty. Piaget used the term “formal operations” for the greater capacity teens have for abstract thought. During the Formal Operations stage, adolescents understand abstract principles that have no physical reference. They can think about abstract concepts like beauty, love, freedom, and morality. The adolescent is not limited by Figure 3-1. Rostral prefrontal cortex or what can be directly seen or heard. This ability to think Brodmann Area 10 source. abstractly is enabled by the development of the rostral prefrontal cortex or Brodmann Area 10 during the teen years (Dumontheil, 2014) (Figure 3-1). This part of the brain is also important for understanding other people’s minds. Read more: Development of abstract thinking during childhood and adolescence: The role of rostrolateral prefrontal cortex. Development of Reasoning and Problem-Solving Skills Preadolescents are capable of logical problem solving using deductive and inductive reasoning, but reasoning improves over adolescence and early adulthood. Adolescents are more familiar with situations where deductive and inductive reasoning work best. Adolescents can also more easily revise their own beliefs while working on problems. Scientific thinking through forming and testing hypotheses improves with secondary education and college (Byrnes, 2003).  Analogical reasoning is the ability to understand the relationships between objects and apply the relationship to new objects; for example 1) dress is to closet as 2) carton of milk is to refrigerator (Whitaker et al., 2018). Analogies help people explain new Figure 2-2. Left anterior prefrontal cortex (BA 45/47) area involved in information, solve problems, and analogical reasoning source. learn. Analogical reasoning grows during middle childhood and improves into mid- adolescence. Development of the left anterior prefrontal cortex coincides with analogical reasoning ability. This part of the brain processes word meanings and concepts (Whitaker et al., 2018) (Figure 2-2). Development of Metacognition Metacognition is synonymous with introspection, or the ability to reflect on one’s thoughts, although introspection also refers to monitoring of behavior and emotions. Individuals who can reflect on their thoughts, memory and learning are able to discover gaps in their knowledge. They can also discern whether their own thinking is logical. Some include all self-monitoring and self-awareness under the domain of metacognition (Weil et al., 2013). Metacognition then overlaps with executive function because monitoring is part of executive functioning (Shimamura, 2000). Metacognitive ability improves steadily during the teen years and plateaus in early adulthood (Weil et al., 2013). Mental health clinicians often rely on clients’ metacognition (introspection) during counseling and in implementing behavior change strategies. Young teens may have to develop metacognitive skills during treatment to maximally benefit. Mindfulness training enhances metacognitive ability and may also help with academic work (Sanger & Dorjee, 2016). Executive Function During Adolescence When we discussed executive function during middle childhood you learned that tests of “cool” executive function measure attention, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control. These tests include the backward digit span and Stroop tests. Cool executive functioning improves steadily over the teen years and predicts academic performance in both math and reading (Best et al., 2011; Poon, 2018). Stress and disadvantage during early childhood predict lower executive functioning that persists through adolescence (Berthelsen et al., 2017). ADHD and externalizing disorders are associated with cool executive function deficits (Dolan & Lennox, 2013). High school students with executive function deficits may benefit from training (Homer et al., 2018). This training will likely improve their academic performance (Best et al., 2011). See Improving high school students' executive functions through digital game play. Decision Making During Adolescence Decision making is also known as “hot” executive function and involves weighing choices with consequences that may be rewarding or punishing. “Hot” refers to the fact that reward and punishment outcomes evoke emotions. Hot and cool executive functions are uncorrelated abilities that rely on distinct brain circuits (Dolan & Lennox, 2013). Academic performance is more related to cool executive function and risky decision making is related to hot executive function. That is why apparently “smart” people can make poor decisions. As described previously, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) is the most well studied test of decision making. In this task, “participants are confronted with four decks of cards and are instructed to pick cards in order to win as much money as possible. Two of the cards (A&B) yield high rewards on each trial, but on some trials, these decks also give large punishments, and therefore these decks are disadvantageous in the long run. Two other decks (C&D) yield small rewards on each trial, but also smaller punishments, and therefore these decks are advantageous in the long run” (Crone & Van Der Molen, 2007, p. 1288). Figure 3-3. The location of the ventral medial prefrontal cortex important to decision making. Performance on the IGT lags behind that of “Cool” executive functions and therefore does not reach adult levels until after the teen years (Crone & Van Der Molen, 2007). Teens that perform better show higher skin conductance or stress responses prior to making decisions that lead to punishment. Therefore, the teens and children that perform worse fail to anticipate negative outcomes. Remember emotions like fear, anxiety, and apprehension may be unpleasant but they also can enhance effective decision making. Children and teens resemble adult patients with damage ventral medial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC). These patients engage in impulsive, socially inappropriate behavior, but have intact intellectual and memory abilities (Crone & Van Der Molen, 2007). Hence the VMPFC is another frontal brain region that gains myelin and connections during the teen years to enable adult levels of social and cognitive functioning (Figure 3-3). Impact of Substance Abuse on the Development of Cognition A large prospective study of adolescents found that those with lower executive function (working memory and inhibition) are more likely to use alcohol and cannabis (Morin et al., 2019). They may also have pre-existing differences in brain development. Use of cannabis further impairs working memory and impairment can last even after stopping. Cannabis may be neurotoxic during adolescence and those who start earlier may also have more negative effects. Binge drinking of alcohol also negatively impacts cognition (Jacobus & Tapert, 2013). Teens with a family history of schizophrenia may be more sensitive to the neurotoxic effects of cannabis (Ho et al., 2022). References Berthelsen, D., Hayes, N., White, S. L. J., & Williams, K. E. (2017). Executive Function in Adolescence: Associations with Child and Family Risk Factors and Self-Regulation in Early Childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00903 Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007 Byrnes, J. P. (2003). Cognitive Development during Adolescence. Blackwell Handbook of Adolescence. Crone, E. A., & Van Der Molen, M. W. (2007). 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