Introduction to International Organizations PDF

Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Lecture 1 (3/9/2024) – Introduction to IO: Concepts and Characteristics Int...

Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Lecture 1 (3/9/2024) – Introduction to IO: Concepts and Characteristics International Organizations What are they? “Secular gods” (Jose Alvarez) → ultimate authority that impose their will or decisions, untouchable) “Frankenstein monsters” (Jose Alvarez) → once they are out of control, we can't do anything about that “Symbol of imperial internationalism” (Mark Mazower) → traces of imperialism are found in IO, how they influence the world “A club for people to get together, talk and have a good time” (President Trump) → about UN Why do IO exist and why do we need them? IGOs and NGOs Rittberger, Zangl, Kruck, 2012:7 IOs IGOs NGOs Establish by states Established by non-state actors (usually) based on inter-state treaty “Common purpose” Regional or global Local, national, or transnational → Regional is to compare and discuss Examples: Human Rights Watch, Coalition for Examples: UN, IMF, World Food Programme, the ICC Bonobo COnservative Initiative (DRC), NATO, EU, ECOWAS Amnesty International Formal Organizations Formal and Informal IO Informal IO → coalition or groups of states that get together without a treaty that pursue corporation in an informal basis Does not meet all the time, only when needed What makes something informal? What are IGOs (Intergovernmental Organizations)? IOs are specific class of international institutions → Institution: “a body of norms, rule and practices that shape behavior and expectations, without necessarily having the physical character of international organization” –Heywood 2014:339 → IO is a form of international institutions but there are other forms of international institutions → International institution is broad, IO is within that category –all IGOs are IOs, but not all IOs are IGOs– 1  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Characteristics of International Organizations Formal treaty base Formal rules and procedure Regular state meetings At least 3 member states Bureaucracy/headquarters Informal organizations → the opposite of the characteristics of formal IOs Ideal Categorization of IOs 1. Membership Universal → every state can become a member (Ex. UN) Limited → only some states can become members (Ex. EU) 2. Competence Comprehensive/general purpose → IO deals with many different issues and topics (Ex. UN) Limited/issue-specific → IO focuses on a specific theme (Ex. WTO) → In reality, the WTO also tackles other issues like climate control, etc. This means that some issue-specific is also talking about other issues 3. Function Rule-making organizations → makes policy and sets rules (Ex. UN) Operational organizations → executes policy (Ex. IAEA), monitors if state comply to the treaties 4. Decision-making Authority → we often find mixed of both Intergovernmental → decision taken by all member states based on horizontal authority (pooled sovereignty) → States are asked consent, vote, etc Supranational → decision taken by organizational body designated by member states based on vertical authority (delegated sovereignty) → Member states have agreed and delegated parts of their sovereignty to that IO, and that IO can decide on behalf of them Three Forces of IOs in World Politics (Hurd, 2020) Obligation Compliance Enforcement 1. Direct 1. Explicit 1. Direct ○ Explicitly said in the ○ States can decide to ○ Directly sanctions a treaty during its follow or violate the member state foundation IO’s treaty 2. Indirect 2. Indirect 2. Implicit ○ Public shaming ○ Arise in the course of ○ IOs influence the the operation on the environment organization IOs as actors, forum, resources → assess IO using these. Which one is more IO? IOs as Actors Each IO is a corporate entity, thus they can be actors in two senses: capable of taking action in its own rights. 2  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Legally: IOs are independent entities with legal personality ICJ opinion 1949 on Reparations for Injuries → they cannot be sued but can enjoy certain rights and responsibility ICC Statute: “The court shall have international legal personality” (Art 4(1)) Politically: independent actorness comes from social recognition Collective actors that are able to do what its constituent parts are unable to do on their own Empirically evident though practices of influencing world politics (Ex. ICC arrest warrants; UN GA resolutions) IOs as Forum Physical forum/arena for debate and negotiation: exchange of interest and information, policy-making States as relevant actors Example: plenary organ (Ex. UN GA) IOs as Resources IOs as tools in the hands of their members states pursue their own personal interests Ex. SC and US invasion in Iraq 2003; IMF; ICJ International Regime → IOs can be part of international regimes → Regimes ar issue specific “Implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given are of international relations” –Krasner 1983:2 Ex. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime Principle Norms Rules Procedures Proliferation of NWs makes Obligations of NNWS to Regulations regarding the 5 yearly review of the NPT war more likely refrain from acquiring NWs export of nuclear materials Principle are underlying causations (ex: NNPR → underlying belief: weapons would cause harm Norm Rules tell us how to behave, concrete rules Procedures → how to make behaviors, etc Relationship between IOs and International Regime → organizations serve regimes 3  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Global Governance “...the sum of the informal and formal ideas, values, norms, procedures, and institutions that help all actors –states, NGOs, civil society, and TNCs –identify, understand, and address trans-boundary problems” –Weiss and Wilkinson 2014, as quoted in: Karns, Mingstand Stiles 2015 not issue specific coordinates behavior of international institutions A set of ideas, values, norms etc that aid actors in identifying and understating trans-boundary problems” → Why has global governance proliferated so much? Something has changed recent years → state-centered view, so now it international view (a term that was more encompassed) → The definition shows that its a much broader concept What is not global governance? → Global space governance → governance out of the global term Lecture 2 (6/9/2024) – IOs and IR Theory Neorealism Assumptions: ○ The international system is anarchic (meaning that there is no superior authority) ○ States are unitary actors (all states have the same interests: they all search for power —mainly material and military power— to advance their national interest) Main premise: "Great powers will develop and mobilize military capabilities to constrain the most powerful among them" Role of IOs ○ Inside realism, IOs are instruments for (powerful/hegemonic) states to pursue their national interests (theory of Hegemonic Stability: IOs are created by powerful states if they believe they can achieve their national interests more efficiently. Consequently, states make cost benefit calculations to decide whether it is wise to use an IO or not). ○ Ex: Asian Infrastructure Bank is an IO promoted by China to pursue their national interests and expand them globally Class Discussion Neorealist scholars argue that states would refrain from giving IOs too much authority. What is the underlying logic for this argument? Think about How neorealists conceive the international system → they view IO as an instrument State interests → the state’s interest is to maintain their power, maintaining control about how they gain and maintain power. Sovereignty is part of the states’ interest, sharing the sovereignty with an IO body is not what the states want Which IO supports this argument? Interpol (any other of those implementing orgs that doesn't make rules), UN Security Council 4  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Institutionalism Assumptions ○ All states are unitary actors but interdependent, meaning that what one state do affect others. Theories that exlpain IOs role from an institutionalist perspective ○ Cooperation games Through this perspective, cooperation happens when the transaction costs are reduced. IOs role is to do so because states delegate the monitoring of compliance of a given state to the IO. Hence, IOs are seen as fora, where states meet regularly. Consequently, they increase the knowledge of other states and decrease the uncertainty, understanding which states cooperate, which ones created a block against you, etc. ○ Contractualism or principal agent theory: Another way to understand IOs inside institutionalism is to understand them as a series of agreements which states enter into expecting to receive a gain, in other words, they are bargains that self-interested states seek. Consequently, institutionalist study the costs and benefits that IOs offer to actors, how IOs reduce transaction costs and help actors find more optimal outcomes among interdependent but autonomous units Some examples are: the Rome Statute of International Court, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade of the WTO or the UN Charter. Class Discussion What is similar and different between neo-realists and institutionalists? Think about: Anarchy → both think that intl system is anarchic, institutionalists conceive this as interdependent (neo-realists does not think like this) The nature of states → similarly sees sovereignty The role of IOs → Neo → IOs as instrument, hesitant to give up sovereignty // institutionalists → pathway to make new deals, getting their interest | Neo → sees IO to enforce state interest // institutionalists → sees IOs to reduce transaction cost Liberalism Assumptions: ○ States are plural actors (not all states are the same and not all of them have the same interests. Ex: democracies don't have the same objectives as autocracies). One of the reason states are plural are because of the sub-actors (corporations, leaders, political parties and other domestic institutions) that are inside the state, which may influence the national interest. Under liberalism, cooperation happens because: ○ States can learn (from previous interactions, mistakes of other states and themselves, etc.). Ex: What the UN learned from the League of Nations ○ States share values (idealism) for which IOs role is to catalyze their achievement ○ Economic interdependence The foundations of liberalism emerges from: ○ Enlightenment or Grotius: liberals assume that human can reason and believe that they can progress and aim towards a better world 5  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann ○ Liberals believe that democratic, interdependent economic states will peacefully cooperate (Immanuel Kant thought in this way) The rise of IOs and International Law is an example on this goal to achieve peace through peaceful cooperation and the binding of shared international values The limits of liberalism: ○ Liberalism is useful to study the terms of the bargains made between states ○ It's not useful to study: IOs as independent actors The effects of differences in power among the parties The feedback process by which the IO might reshape states The belief about IOs interests IOs understanding of the problems they confront in international politics Types of liberalism: ○ Domestic institutions or "interest-group liberalism" It focuses on studying the relative power of substate actor that contribute to making the collective "national interest" ○ International regimes or "regime theory" It focuses on studying how international rules and norms govern an issue, in other words, what are the formal and informal rules of the international system and how do they impact the choices states make. Class Discussion Why do liberal IR theories argue that states are highly likely to promote active cooperation through IO? → we have to look inside domestic structure, impacts preference, non-state actors influencing government, what kind of actors, domestic-democracy leads to peace, the assumption that once states open up they become more democratic and wont go to war with each other (liberal peace theory) → liberalism view conflict by assessing interdependence and economic level of states Humans can learn from past experience → liberalist (Hobbes): everyones at war with each other, we need to survive in this, possibility of peace, states need for security, exploit everyone's self interest, state striving for peace Think about: Normative foundations Characteristics of states Liberal peace theory Principal-agent Theory Class Discussion What does this theory say about the relationship between state and IOs? → states as principals for mandating IOs as their agents. Dilemmas: Autonomy vs control → autonomy (states are monitoring behavior of the agents and what they are mandated to do, its explicitly in the contract → in the contractualism) ○ The issue with the contract: you can't just right everything ○ Implementing orgs → monitoring is costly 6  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann ○ Rules orgs → specific degree of autonomy because monitoring them is costly ○ IOs as agent might empower themselves ○ Ex: EU has gone way beyond what is actually mandated to it by the states Multiple principals ○ How principals are structured is hard to read → may be difficult ○ Collective principals → 1 principals but compose of individual parts ○ Collective agents → much more complicated than the simplified version of principals and agents Does the monitoring of states of how IO implement their tasks actually implement their tasks? → From an IO members = yes Is it possible that the relationship shifts and switches? Yes, if we look at “peace operation” → states mandated by the UN for peace and security. But, UN doesn't have a police force, and then asked states for their police → therefore they switch Constructivism Assumptions ○ "Anarchy is what states make of it" (Wendt) → the system is made anarchic through the way states believe the system is. This happens because not only material elements matter, but also norms, ideas, discourse and culture matter because the world is constantly being shaped by the ideas that people and states have about themselves and the world around them. ○ Ex: The USA search of approval from the UN Security Council of Iraq invasion (by doing so, they reinforced the importance of the UN approval and authority when performing military operations) or states boycotting International Court of Justice cases by not participating (even though the opponent may win the case, by not participating they reinforce the idea that the ICJ is not important or has no sovereignty over states) How IOs are understood ○ IOs are autonomous actors who shape socially construct world politics, hence, IOs have constitutive power because they can change the world order. Ex: The way the UN Security Council has decided which acts were or weren't "threats to international peace and security" will shape which acts will be considered as threatening or not. ○ Nonetheless, constructivism takes into consideration other important actors besides IOs. For example: norm entrepreneurs (society movements that push for the adoption of a norm), advocacy networks, epistemic communities (communities of scientists in specific issue areas who put forward important policy proposals), etc. Class Discussion What are the main differences between constructivism and the “traditional” IR theories? IOs are shaped by norms, values, and ideas Traditional thinks that IOs are shaped by state’s wants, and the state’s preferences Constructivists expand the views of actors IOs are actors in their own, because they can shape the intl system, Think about International system Role of IOs Nature of states 7  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Critical Theories Englobe all of those theories that are reflexive and take into consideration the position of the researcher itself. We distinguish between problem solving or analytic theories and normative theories, critical theories tend to go to normative theories. Some critical theories are: (Neo-)Marxism, Neo-Gramscianism, World systems theory, Feminist theories, post-colonial theory These theories are normative because they aim at ○ Overcoming the existing system because they not only want to analyze the system that we have but rather uncover dynamics of the existing system in order to overcome it. Consequently, critical theories believe that international structure is shaped by, and, thus, IOs roles are to: ○ Economics, financial systems and structures of production IOs are an expression of the dominant economic and financial structure that exist around the world and IR (Marxism and Gramscianism) ○ Transnational elites IOs are constituted by transnational elites, consequently, they are very distant from the working class of societies (World systems) ○ Masculinity IOs reproduce masculine structures on the international level (Feminism) ○ In general, IOs have embedded Global capitalism, patriarchal and imperial structures are seen as representatives of hegemonic states. In other words, critical theories try to show that IOs aren't neutral, they are deficient, they embed certain imbalances in the international system. Consequently, critical theories try to overcome these inequalities. Marxism: ○ Assumption It starts from the premise that world politics exist in an inherently unequal system in which rich states and firms share a privileged position against everyone else (because there is no difference between politics and economics, both are part of a single social global order). ○ IOs role Under marxism, IOs are mechanisms that contribute to maintaining the existing divisions between rich and poor. Ex: the unequal voting rules and membership of the UN Security Council, the WTO efforts to reduce tariffs on Third World exports but their inaction on reducing rich-country subsidies on agriculture, the IMFs capacity to force countries to adopt market-based policies that harm the poor in exchange for loans that are used to repay international banks, etc. ○ Marxism vs. Critical approaches on the roles of IOs The major difference between marxism and other IR theories is the way that the political and economic domains are linked because, to marxists, there is little to no difference between the political interest expressed by states at the UN then the economic ones by the IMF, both want to maintain a stable political system that enables the accumulation of wealth in ever fewer private hands. Class DIscussion Why are critical theories named “critical”? Postcolonial → criticize that the iR theory was very Western-centric, so they want to expand to the Global South ○ Criticize how the scholars come about and the lack of acknowledge that how the past scholars came about 8  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann The feminist Marxism → economic structure shape the intl structure should be emphasized Lecture 3: (10/9/2024): History of IOs and IO Research What have we learned about IR theories? How IR theories view the role of IOs How IR theories differ in their views on IOs depending on: Current Trends in IO Research IO Vitality Longevity: 15 IOs established in 1865 existed for 100 years Most IOs survive first 5 years, but survival depends on the environment IOs established prior WW 1 exist 30 years IOs established after WW 2 exist 10-20 years What Kills IOs? Types of termination: 1. Expired founding treaties 2. Dissolved by state parties 3. Replaced by, → How much overlap of the mandate? 4. or merged with other organizations 5. Fall into disuse for a prolonged period after which they are no longer considered to have a binding effect What are the causes for termination? Exogenous shocks Mandate (technical vs non-technical) → Technical IGOs have a greater chance of surviving geopolitical crises → The mandate matters especially when the exogenous environment happen → Economic independence also matters, and vulnerable in the exogenous shocks happen → Older and larger IOs have a tendency to survive, the younger and smaller ones are more likely to terminate → Replacement cost: if it is expensive and complicated (in bureaucracy means) to replace an IGO, the IGO would not be terminated Figure 1: Most likely to die during times of major global conflicts Highest termination rates in 1930s and 1940s, linked to the Great Depression and WW 2 Other spikes: 1910s (WW 1), 1990s (end of Cold War) 9  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann Gray 2018: Life, Death, or Zombie? Population of international economic organizations between 1955-2015 General trend of IEOs Amount of zombies is much more than the amount of dead IEOs Why is only half of the population of IEOs active? ○ Bureaucracy plays an important role → bureaucratic autonomy influences vitality (the more independent the bureaucracy, the more likely it remain alive) ○ IOs that are located in attractive cities are more likely to remain alive History of IOs 19th Century Internationalism Early IOs 1815: Central Commission for the Navigation of Rhine (in the Congress of Vienna) 1865: International Telegraph Union (ITU) 1874: Universal Postal Union (UPU) 1875: International Bureau of Weights and Measure 1885: International Railway Congress Association 1890: Commercial Bureau of the American Republics → Pan-American Union (1910) 1907: International Office of Public Hygiene → predecessor of health sector in the UN The terms used was not “international organizations” → came up later, not necessarily the intention when founding these technical cooperation-based units Central Commission for the Navigation on the Rhine Oldest IGO, and still exists Seated in Strasbourg (France) 5 member states Small secretariat with 20 staff members The Internationalism of the 19th Century Strong developed towards IOs in the 19th century Has very specific features that can look similar to global governance Transnational civil society movement → able to connect the international world (ex: peace movement, women’s rights, labor rights) Participation in IOs as a sign of state power (access) and instrument of foreign policy (demonstrate sovereignty) ○ As it gave them access to the international stage and it gave them a way to legitimize their sovereignty Global governance (technological coordination) → in regard to health concerns International cooperation → would eventually lead to peace Ambivalence of IOs: ○ Instrument of Western imperialism → as the West dominated the creation of IOs ○ “Back door” access to power for non-Western states and marginalized political groups (ex: women’s rights advocates) 10  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann League of Nations (LoN) The goal was to make that all of the states join the League → was not successful Important elements of the making of the League of Nations, and what can we see as the surviving factors for the League that still remains active today? Effects of WW 1 Civil society and individuals as important actors Active role of the US (new hegemonic role) → Woodrow Wilson: 14 points plan → highly influential on giving the idea of how the world should look like after the disastrous WW 1 and give the intellectual foundation of this endeavor Concrete realization of the League: GB, France, Italy The Covenant of the League of Nations was adopted by the Allied forces on 29 April 1919 On 10 January 1920, the Covenant entered into forces (Treaty of Versailles) Membership in the League 32 original member states Expansion to 44 (including the Netherlands) Central Powers: Bulgaria and Austria in 1920, Hungary in 1922, and Germany in 1926 Largest number of members: 58 states (1934-1935) Membership withdrawals: Germany and Japan in 1933, Italy in 1935 → these memberships accelerated the decline of the organization The Covenant The core treaty that the League is based on, that is signed and ratified by the member states 26 articles (UN has 11 articles) Purpose of the LON: “to promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security” (see preamble and articles 8-17) Instruments for maintaining peace and security: 1. Disarmament (Art 8) 2. Peaceful resolution of disputes (Art 12-17) 3. Conflict prevention (Art 16-18, 20) Problem: There is no possibility to enforce this mechanism to the member states. No comprehensive prohibition on the use of force in international politics. Military force is permitted if the Council of the LON is unable to unanimously decide on a conflict situation Principal Organs of the League of Nations Assembly: organ where all states participate. For some states, this is the only chance to show that they have arrived in the international world Council of the league: crucial decisions were taken by the council of the league Secretariat: more influential than we thought ○ Directors were all men, except for one women in which she was not titled as a director International Labour Organization: has grown out of the labor 11  Introduction to International Organizations - 6441HIIOH Dr. Gisela Hirschmann movement, still exists today, one of the oldest organizations Permanent Court of Justice Special Commissions: drug addiction, health, slavery, help for underdeveloped nations, refugees, minorities, mandates, women The Assembly Art 3: “The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting peace in the world” Decision-making: mostly by unanimity. Exceptions: 1. Admitting new members (⅔ majority, Art 1) 2. Election of non-permanent members of the Council (simple majority, Art 4) 3. Procedural decisions (simple majority, Art 5) 4. Approval of the Secretary General (simple majority, Art 6) Only met once a year as for states further away, it costs money to send representatives Once the headquarters moved to Geneva, that is when countries started sending permanent representations to be there permanently → to be more effective as telephone and mail took too long and was not always secure The Council Six permanent members: GB, France, Italy (until 1937), Japan (until 1933), Germany (1926-1933), Soviet Union (1934-1939) Four non-permanent members : elected by the Assembly “from time to time in its discretion” Mandate (Art 4): “... any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting peace in the world” Decision-making by unanimity (unless otherwise expressly provided in the Covenant, ex: procedural decision (Art 5), and the adoption of a report on an international dispute (art 15.4)) Forum: discussion and production of reports, conflict resolution done by member states Permanent Secretariat Secretary General: appointed by the Council with the approval of the majority of the Assembly Several sections: finances, disarmament, mandate territories etc. Main task: support the work of the Assembly and Council ​Secretary-Generals of the League United Kingdom → Sir Eric Drummond (1920–1933) France → Joseph Avenol (1933–1940) Ireland → Seán Lester (1940–1946) Failure of the Leagues 1. No enforcement in reaction to open breach of Covenant 2. Predominance of national interests on the side of the powerful states (GB showed no will to uphold the Covenant) → loss of credibility 3. Deterrence vs. disarmament ○ Having weapons to act as a deterrent from other states ○ Other aspects is the disarmament would lead to peace ○ LON was never able to rectify this difference → lead to tension between states 4. No collective defense 5. Economic nationalism a peril for peaceful international cooperation ○ Lead to no belief that interdependence would lead to greater prosperity 12