Motivation and Emotion - CICCARELLI PDF

9 motivation and emotion Jennifer got excellent grades in high school. She was involved in a variety of activities, but her classes always came first and she earned an academic scholarship to college. The scholarship required her to maintain a 3.0 GPA—something that she...

9 motivation and emotion Jennifer got excellent grades in high school. She was involved in a variety of activities, but her classes always came first and she earned an academic scholarship to college. The scholarship required her to maintain a 3.0 GPA—something that she didn’t think would be too difficult. Jennifer really enjoyed her college courses as well as the newfound freedoms of college life. With the abundance of social opportunities, she found several new activities to pursue and devoted less time to studying. She was shocked when she got a D on her first exam. She vowed to do better, but finished the semester with only a 2.0 GPA and lost her scholarship. With the help of her academic advisor, Jennifer was able to identify time-management and study strategies and learn to balance her academic and social lives. Her renewed focus enabled her to raise her GPA, later regain and maintain her scholarship, and ultimately graduate. As a busy college student, how do you stay motivated to succeed? CC Watch the Video at MyPsychLab.com W 352 Why study motivation and emotion? The study of motivation not only helps us understand why we do the things we do but also why our behaviors can change when our focus shifts or gets redirected. Emotions are a part of everything we do, affecting our relationships with others and our own health, as well as influencing important decisions. In this chapter, we will explore the motives behind our ac- tions and the origins and influences of emotions. learning objectives How do psychologists define motivation, and What are some biological, social, and cultural 9.1 what are the key elements of the early instinct 9.6 factors that contribute to obesity? and drive-reduction approaches to motivation? What are the characteristics of the three types 9.2 of needs? 9.7 What are the three elements of emotion? What are the key elements of the arousal and How do the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard 9.3 incentive approaches to motivation? 9.8 theories of emotion differ? What are the key elements in cognitive arousal How do Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self- 9.4 determination theories explain motivation? 9.9 theory, the facial feedback hypothesis, and the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion? What happens in the body to cause hunger, 9.5 and how do social factors influence a person’s 9.10 What are the stages of the GTD method? experience of hunger? 353 Success Center Approaches to Understanding Motivation Study on MyPsychLab Dynamic Study Modules 9.1 How do psychologists define motivation, and what are the key elements of the Watch the Video on MyPsychLab early instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation? Study Methods Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that Managing Time physical or psychological needs or wants are met (Petri, 1996). The word itself comes Reading the Text from the Latin word movere, which means “to move.” Motivation is what “moves” people Lecture Notes to do the things they do. For example, when a person is relaxing in front of the television Exam Prep and begins to feel hungry, the physical need for food might cause the person to get up, go Paper Writing into the kitchen, and search for something to eat. The physical need of hunger caused the Improve Memory action (getting up), directed it (going to the kitchen), and sustained the search (finding or preparing something to eat). Hunger is only one example, of course. Loneliness may lead to calling a friend or going to a place where there are people. The desire to get ahead in life motivates many people to go to college. Just getting out of bed in the morning is motivated by the need to keep a roof over one’s head and food on the table by going to work. Watch the Video, The Big Picture: Motivation and Emotion, at MyPsychLab There are different types of motivation. Sometimes people are driven to do some- thing because of an external reward of some sort (or the avoidance of an unpleasant consequence, as when someone goes to work at a job to make money and avoid losing possessions such as a house or a car). to Learning Objective 5.5. In extrinsic motivation, a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from the person (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Other examples would be giving a child money for every A received on a report card, offering a bonus to an employee for increased perfor- mance, or tipping a server in a restaurant for good service. The child, employee, and server are motivated to work for the external or extrinsic rewards. In contrast, intrinsic motiva- tion is the type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is fun, rewarding, challenging, or satisfying in some internal manner. Both outcome and level of effort can vary depending on the type of motivation. Psychologist Teresa Amabile (Amabile et al., 1976) found that children’s creativity was affected by the kind of motiva- tion for which they worked: Extrinsic motivation decreased the degree of creativity shown in an experimental group’s artwork when compared to the creativity levels of the children in an intrinsically motivated control group. To learn more about the factors motivating your behavior, participate in the survey experiment What Motivates You? Simulation What Motivates You? A motive is a specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement that prompts goal-directed behavior. This survey asks about the types of things that motivate you to work, play, and live. Go to the Experiment Simulate the Experiment, What Motivates You?, on MyPsychLab 354  motivation and emotion 355 INSTINCTS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY APPROACH Early attempts to understand motivation focused on the biologically de- 9.1 termined and innate patterns of behavior called instincts that exist in both people and animals. Just as animals are governed by their instincts to per- 9.2 form activities such as migrating, nest building, mating, and protecting their territory, evolutionary theorists proposed that human beings may also be governed by similar instincts ( James, 1890; McDougall, 1908). For instance, 9.3 according to these theorists, the human instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behavior, and the human instinct for territorial protection may be related to aggressive behavior. 9.4 William McDougall (1908) actually proposed a total of 18 instincts for humans, including curiosity, flight (running away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), “How much would you pay for all the secrets of the and acquisition (gathering possessions). As the years progressed, psychologists universe? Wait, don’t answer yet. You also get this six- 9.5 quart covered combination spaghetti pot and clam added more and more instincts to the list until there were thousands of pro- steamer. Now, how much would you pay?” posed instincts. However, none of these early theorists did much more than ©The New Yorker Collection 1981 Michael Maslin from 9.6 give names to these instincts. Although there were plenty of descriptions, such cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. as “submissive people possess the instinct of submission,” there was no attempt to explain why these instincts exist in humans, if they exist at all (Petri, 1996). 9.7 Instinct approaches have faded away because, although they could describe human behavior, they could not explain it. But these approaches did accomplish one important thing by forcing psychologists to realize that some human behavior is controlled by he- 9.8 reditary factors. This idea remains central in the study of human behavior today. For example, research on the genetics of both cognitive and behavioral traits suggests that hereditary factors can account for more than 50 percent of the variance in some aspects 9.9 of human cognition, temperament, and personality; and much of this variance is due to the influence of multiple genes or hereditary factors, not just one (Kempf & Weinberger, 9.10 2009; Plomin et al., 1994; Plomin & Spinath, 2004). APPROACHES BASED ON NEEDS AND DRIVES The next approach to understanding motivation focuses on the concepts of needs and drives. A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological tension as well as a physical arousal that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. This tension is called a drive (Hull, 1943). DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY Drive-reduction theory pro- poses just this connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior. In this theory, there are two Increased Eat Glucose hunger raised kinds of drives. Primary drives are those that involve sur- vival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst, whereas acquired (secondary) drives are those that are learned Glucose Don’t Hunger through experience or conditioning, such as the need for lowered eat diminished money or social approval, or the need of recent former smokers to have something to put in their mouths. If this sounds familiar, it should. The concepts of primary and secondary reinforcers from Chap- Figure 9.1 Homeostasis ter Five are related to these drives. Primary reinforcers satisfy primary drives, and second- In homeostasis, the body maintains balance in its physical states. For ary reinforcers satisfy acquired, or secondary, drives. to Learning Objective 5.5. example, this diagram shows how This theory also includes the concept of homeostasis, or the tendency of the body to increased hunger (a state of imbalance) maintain a steady state. One could think of homeostasis as the body’s version of a thermostat— prompts a person to eat. Eating thermostats keep the temperature of a house at a constant level, and homeostasis does the same increases the level of glucose (blood thing for the body’s functions. When there is a primary drive need, the body is in a state of sugar), causing the feelings of hunger imbalance. This stimulates behavior that brings the body back into balance, or homeostasis. For to reduce. After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low example, if Jarrod’s body needs food, he feels hunger and the state of tension/arousal associated enough to stimulate the hunger drive with that need. He will then seek to restore his homeostasis by eating something, which is the once again, and the entire cycle is behavior stimulated to reduce the hunger drive (see Figure 9.1). repeated.  356 CHAPTER 9 (left) The human body needs water , especially 9.1 when a person is working hard or under stress, as this man appears to be. Thirst is a survival need of the body, making it a primary drive, according to drive-reduction theory. What 9.2 other kinds of needs might be primary drives? (right) Some people are driven to do 9.3 strenuous, challenging activities even when there is no physical need to do so. When a drive is acquired through learning, it is called 9.4 an acquired or secondary drive. Fulfilling an acquired drive provides secondary reinforcement. What might this rock climber find reinforcing about scaling this steep cliff? 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 Although drive-reduction theory works well to explain the actions people take to reduce tension created by needs, it does not explain all human motivation. Why do people eat when they are not really hungry? People don’t always seek to reduce their inner arousal 9.9 either—sometimes they seek to increase it. Bungee-jumping, parachuting as a recreation, rock climbing, and watching horror movies are all activities that increase the inner state of 9.10 tension and arousal, and many people love doing these activities. Why would people do such things if they don’t reduce some need or restore homeostasis? The answer is complex: There are different types of needs, different effects of arousal, different incentives, and different levels of importance attached to many forms of behavior. The following theories explore some of these factors in motivation. Watch the Video, The Basics: Theories of Emotion and Motivation: Two Theories of Motivation, at MyPsychLab DIFFERENT STROKES FOR DIFFERENT FOLKS: PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS 9.2 What are the characteristics of the three types of needs? Obviously, motivation is about needs. Drive-reduction theory talks about needs, and other theories of motivation include the concept of needs. In many of these theories, most needs are the result of some inner physical drive (such as hunger or thirst) that de- mands to be satisfied, but other theories examine our psychological needs. McClelland’s Theory: Affiliation, Power, and Achievement Needs Harvard University psychologist David C. McClelland (1961, 1987) proposed a theory of motivation that highlights the importance of three psychological needs not typically considered by the other theories: affiliation, power, and achievement. According to McClelland, human beings have a psychological need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. Called the need for affiliation (abbreviated as nAff in McClelland’s writings), people high in this need seek to be liked by others and to be held in high regard by those around them. This makes high affiliation people good team players, whereas a person high in achievement just might run over a few team members on the way to the top. A second psychological need proposed by McClelland is the need for power (nPow). Power is not about reaching a goal but about having control over other  motivation and emotion 357 people. People high in this need would want to have influence over others and make an impact on them. They want their ideas to be the ones that are used, regardless of 9.1 whether or not their ideas will lead to success. Status and prestige are important, so these people wear expensive clothes, live in expensive houses, drive fancy cars, and 9.2 dine in the best restaurants. Whereas someone who is a high achiever may not need a lot of money to validate the achievement, someone who is high in the need for power typically sees the money (and cars, houses, jewelry, and other “toys”) as the 9.3 achievement. The need for achievement (nAch) involves a strong desire to succeed in attain- ing goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones. People who are high in 9.4 nAch look for careers and hobbies that allow others to evaluate them because these high achievers also need to have feedback about their performance in addition to the achievement of reaching the goal. Although many of these people do become wealthy, 9.5 famous, and publicly successful, others fulfill their need to achieve in ways that lead only to their own personal success, not material riches—they just want the chal- lenge. Achievement motivation appears to be strongly related to success in school, 9.6 Sean Combs at the Cannes occupational success, and the quality and amount of what a person produces (Collins International Film Festival. Many et al., 2004; Gillespie et al., 2002; Spangler, 1992). people who are as wealthy as him continue to buy new houses, 9.7 businesses, clothing, and cars How do people get to be high achievers? (among other things) even though they do not need them. Such 9.8 Personality and nAch: Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory of Motivation According actions are examples of the need to motivation and personality psychologist Carol Dweck (1999), the need for for power. How might this need for achievement is closely linked to personality factors, including a person’s view of how power be expressed in a person’s 9.9 relationships with others, such as a self (the beliefs a person holds about his or her own abilities and relationships with spouse, employee, or friend? others) can affect the individual’s perception of the success or failure of his or her 9.10 actions. This concept is related to the much older notion of locus of control, in which people who assume that they have control over what happens in their lives are consid- ered to be internal in locus of control, and those who feel that their lives are controlled by powerful others, luck, or fate are considered to be external in locus of control (A. P. MacDonald, 1970; Rotter, 1966). Dweck has amassed a large body of empirical research, particularly in the field of education, to support the idea that people’s “theories” about their own selves can affect their level of achievement motivation and their willingness to keep trying to achieve suc- cess in the face of failure (Dweck, 1986; Dweck & Elliott, 1983; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988). According to this research, people can form one of two belief systems about intelligence, which in turn affects their motivation to achieve. Those who believe intelligence is fixed and unchangeable often demonstrate an external locus of control when faced with difficulty, leading them to give up easily or avoid situations in which they might fail—often ensuring their own failure in the process (Dweck & Molden, 2008). They are prone to developing learned helplessness, the tendency to stop trying to achieve a goal because past failure has led them to believe that they cannot suc- ceed. to Learning Objective 5.11. Their goals involve trying to “look smart” and to outperform others (“See, at least I did better than she did”). For example, a stu- dent faced with a big exam may avoid coming to class that day, even though that might mean getting an even lower score on a makeup exam. Watch the Video, Carol Dweck: Mixed Emotions, at MyPsychLab This does not mean that students with this view of intelligence are always unsuc- cessful. In fact, Dweck’s research (1999) suggests that students who have had a long his- tory of successes may be most at risk for developing a learned helplessness after a big failure, precisely because their previous successes have led them to believe in their own fixed intelligence. For example, a child who had never earned anything less than an A in  358 CHAPTER 9 school who then receives his first C might become depressed and refuse to do any more 9.1 homework, ensuring future failure. The other type of person believes that intelligence is changeable and can be shaped by experiences and effort in small increases, or increments. These people also 9.2 tend to show an internal locus of control, both in believing that their own actions and efforts will improve their intelligence, and in taking control or increasing their 9.3 efforts when faced with challenges (Dweck & Molden, 2008). They work at devel- oping new strategies and get involved in new tasks, with the goal of increasing their “smarts.” They are motivated to master tasks and don’t allow failure to destroy their 9.4 confidence in themselves or prevent them from trying again and again, using new strategies each time. Based on this and other research, Dweck recommends that parents and teachers 9.5 praise efforts and the methods that children use to make those efforts, not just successes or ability. Instead of saying, “You’re right, how smart you are,” the parent or teacher should Many people are driven by a say something such as, “You are really thinking hard,” or “That was a very clever way to 9.6 need to attain both realistic and think about this problem.” In the past, teachers and parents have been told that praise is challenging goals. This young girl good and criticism is bad—it might damage a child’s self-esteem. Dweck believes that seems eager to provide an answer constructive criticism, when linked with praise of effort and the use of strategies, will be 9.7 to the teacher’s question, and the teacher’s positive feedback a better influence on the child’s self-esteem and willingness to challenge themselves than will help foster the girl’s need for endless praise that can become meaningless when given indiscriminately (Gunderson 9.8 achievement. et al., 2013). 9.9 9.10 Explore the Concept at MyPsychLab 9.1 9.2 CONCEPT MAP intrinsic: actions are rewarding or satisfying in and of themselves types extrinsic: actions are performed because they lead to some sort of external outcome biologically determined/innate patterns of behavior instinct old approach: instincts are mainly descriptions, not explanations; idea that some behavior is hereditary remains an important focus need: requirement for something essential for survival; existence of need leads to psychological tension (drive) and physical arousal; satisfying need reduces drive/tension drive reduction primary drives involve survival needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and maintaining homeostasis secondary (acquired) drives are learned through experience or conditioning (e.g., money, social approval) need for achievement (nAch) psychological needs have psychological needs been highlighted in some need for affiliation (nAff) theories (e.g., McClelland) need for power (nPow) Dweck suggests that the need for achievement is linked to a person’s view of self (fixed or changeable) and locus of control Approaches to Understanding Motivation (process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met)  motivation and emotion 359 PRACTICE quiz How Much Do You Remember? ANSWERS AVAILABLE IN ANSWER KEY. 9.1 Pick the best answer. 1. Motivation is the process by which activities are _______, 4. What motivational theory relies heavily on the concept of __________, and __________to meet a person’s physical or homeostasis? 9.2 psychological requirements. a. instinctual theory a. started; directed; continued b. need for affiliation theory b. sensed; perceived; created c. drive-reduction theory 9.3 c. created; developed; acted upon d. need for achievement theory d. desired; directed; developed 5. People high in the need for __________ want to be liked by 2. If a person carries out a behavior to receive an outcome that others and are good team players. 9.4 is separate from the person, this is known as a. achievement c. power a. intrinsic motivation. b. affiliation d. emotion b. extrinsic motivation. 6. According to research by Carol Dweck, which of the follow- 9.5 c. drive-reduction motivation. ing would be the best phrase to reinforce a child’s behavior? d. instinctual motivation. a. I’m proud of the way you tried to solve that problem. 3. William McDougall’s original research on instinctual b. Good job. You got the right answer. 9.6 motivation proposed a total of __________ instincts c. Well done. But you must try even harder next time. for humans, whereas later researchers believed there d. Excellent. Now go out and do it again. were __________. a. 5; 25 c. 18; thousands THINKING CRITICALLY: 9.7 b. 18; 50 d. 100; millions Which of the three types of needs currently drive you? Will that have to change once you find a career-oriented job? 9.8 AROUSAL APPROACHES 9.9 9.3 What are the key elements of the arousal and incentive approaches to motivation? 9.10 Another explanation for human motivation involves the recognition of yet another type of need, the need for stimulation. A stimulus motive is one that appears to be un- learned but causes an increase in stimulation. Examples would be curiosity, playing, and exploration. OPTIMUM AROUSAL In arousal theory, people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) Figure 9.2 Arousal and level of tension. Task performances, for example, may suffer if the level of arousal is too Performance high (such as severe test anxiety) or even if the level of arousal is too low (such as bore- The optimal level of arousal for dom). For many kinds of tasks, a moderate level of arousal seems to be best. This relation- task performance depends on the ship between task performance and arousal has been explained by the Yerkes-Dodson difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy tasks well if we are at law (Teigen, 1994; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908), although Yerkes and Dodson formulated a high–moderate level of arousal the law referring to stimulus intensity, not arousal level (Winton, 1987). (green) and accomplish difficult Of special interest to both sports psychologists and social psychologists, this arousal tasks well if we are at a low– effect appears to be modified by the difficulty level of the task: Easy tasks demand a moderate level. somewhat “high–moderate” level for optimal performance, whereas diffi- cult tasks require a “low–moderate” level. Figure 9.2 shows this relation- ship in graphic form. A sports psychologist might work with an athlete to High Difficult task Easy task help them get “in the zone,” where they are in that specific zone of arousal (not too low and not too high) and state of mental focus so as to maxi- Performance mize their athletic skills and performance. Social psychologists also examine the effect of the presence of other people on the facilitation or impairment of an individual’s performance. to Learning Objective 12.1. For example, imagine someone in a classroom speaking to a classmate seated nearby. The act of speaking directly to another person is a fairly easy task for many people and is accomplished without any difficulty or errors. However, Low ask that same individual to stand, turn, and address the entire classroom of Low High Arousal Level students, and all of a sudden his or her arousal level spikes; many individuals  360 CHAPTER 9 in a similar situation may find themselves unable to put words together well enough to 9.1 form coherent sentences, or to pronounce words correctly—in essence, they may become “tongue-tied,” all because their arousal level has gotten too high. Maintaining an optimal level of arousal, then, may involve reducing tension or cre- 9.2 ating it (Hebb, 1955). For example, husbands or wives who are underaroused may pick a fight with their spouse. Students who experience test anxiety (a high level of arousal) 9.3 may seek out ways to reduce that anxiety to improve their test performance. Students who are not anxious at all may not be motivated to study well, thus lowering their test performance. Many arousal theorists believe that the optimal level of arousal for most 9.4 people under normal circumstances is somewhere in the middle, neither too high nor too low. 9.5 If people are supposed to be seeking a level of arousal some- where around the middle, why do some people love to do things 9.6 like bungee-jumping? Even though the average person might require a moderate level of arousal to feel 9.7 content, there are some people who need less arousal and some who need more. The person who needs more arousal is called a sensation seeker (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). Sensation seekers seem to need more complex and varied sensory experiences than do 9.8 other people. The need does not always have to involve danger. For example, students who travel to other countries to study tend to score higher on scales of sensation seek- ing than do students who stay at home (Schroth & McCormack, 2000). Sensation 9.9 seeking may be related to temperament. Learning Objective 8.7. Table 9.1 has some sample items from a typical sensation-seeking scale. In one study (Putnam & Stifter, 2002), researchers found evidence of “sensation- 9.10 seeking” behavior in children as young as age 2. In this study, 90 children were studied at the ages of 6, 12, 24, and 25 months. In a test of the youngest participants, the babies were shown two sets of toys: a block, a plate, and a cup; or a flashing light, a toy beeper, and a wind-up dragon. The first set was considered a low-intensity stimulus whereas the second set was labeled a high-intensity stimulus. The infants who reached out for the Does this look fun? If so, you may toys more quickly, and reached for the high-intensity toys in particular, were high sensa- score relatively higher in sensation tion seekers. seeking. Is the tendency to be a sensation seeker something people have when they are born? Although it is tempting to think of 6-month-old children as having little in the way of experiences that could shape their personalities, the fact is that the first Table 9.1 Sample Items From the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire SCALE ITEM SENSATION SEEKING I sometimes do “crazy” things just for fun. High I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable. High I am an impulsive person. High Before I begin a complicated job, I make careful plans. Low I usually think about what I am going to do before doing it. Low Source: Adapted from Zuckerman, M. (2002).  motivation and emotion 361 6 months of life is full of experiences that might affect children’s choices in the future. For example, a very young infant might, while being carried, stick a hand into some 9.1 place that ends up causing pain. This experience might affect that infant’s willingness in the future to put his or her hand in something else through the simple learning 9.2 process of operant conditioning. to Learning Objective 5.5. In a longitudinal study taking place over about 4 years, researchers found that adolescents who played video games in which high risk-taking is positively presented became more likely to 9.3 engage in risky behavior and had increased scores on levels of sensation seeking (Hull et al., 2012). 9.4 INCENTIVE APPROACHES Last Thanksgiving, I had eaten about all I could. Then my 9.5 aunt brought out a piece of her wonderful pumpkin pie and I couldn’t resist—I ate it, even though I was not at all hungry. What 9.6 makes us do things even when we don’t have the drive or need to do them? 9.7 It’s true that sometimes there is no physical need present, yet people still eat, drink, or react as if they did have a need. Even though that piece of pie was not necessary to reduce 9.8 a hunger drive, it was very rewarding, wasn’t it? And on past occasions, that pie was also delicious and rewarding, so there is anticipation of that reward now. The pie, in all its glorious promise of flavor and sweetness, becomes, in itself, an incentive to eat. Incen- 9.9 tives are things that attract or lure people into action. In incentive approaches, behavior is explained in terms of the external stimulus and its rewarding properties. These rewarding properties exist independently of any need 9.10 or level of arousal and can cause people to act only upon the incentive. Thus, incentive theory is actually based, at least in part, on the principles of learning that were discussed in Chapter Five. to Learning Objective 5.5. By itself, the incentive approach does not explain the motivation behind all behav- ior. Many theorists today see motivation as a result of both the “push” of internal needs or drives and the “pull” of a rewarding external stimulus. For example, sometimes a person may actually be hungry (the push) but choose to satisfy that drive by selecting a candy bar instead of a celery stick. The candy bar has more appeal to most people, and it, therefore, has more pull than the celery. (Frankly, to most people, just about anything has more pull than celery.) HUMANISTIC APPROACHES 9.4 How do Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-determination theories explain motivation? Some final approaches to the study of motivation are humanistic in nature. One of the classic humanistic approaches is that of Maslow, while a more modern approach is repre- sented by self-determination theory. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS The first humanistic theory is based on the work of Abraham Maslow (1943, 1987). As explained in the video What’s In It For Me?: Meeting Our Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy, Maslow proposed that there are several levels of needs that a person must strive to meet before achieving the highest level of personality fulfill- ment. According to Maslow, self-actualization is the point that is seldom reached—at which people have satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential.  362 CHAPTER 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 CC 9.7 Watch the Video, What’s In It For Me?: Meeting Our Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy, at MyPsychLab Figure 9.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy These needs include both fundamental deficiency needs, such 9.8 of Needs as the need for food or water, and growth needs, such as the Maslow proposed that human desire for having friends or feeling good about oneself beings must fulfill the more basic Transcendence (Maslow, 1971; Maslow & Lowery, 1998). For a per- 9.9 needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able needs: to son to achieve self-actualization, which is one of the find spiritual highest level of growth needs, the primary, funda- to fulfill the higher needs of self- meaning beyond one’s actualization and transcendence. immediate self mental needs must first be fulfilled. Figure 9.3 9.10 shows the typical way to represent Maslow’s Self-actualization needs: series of needs as a pyramid with the most to find self-fulfillment and realize one’s potential basic needs for survival at the bottom and the highest needs at the top. This type of ranking is called a hierarchy.* Aesthetic needs: The only need higher than self- to appreciate symmetry, order, and beauty actualization is transcendence, a search for spiritual meaning beyond one’s immediate Cognitive needs: self that Maslow added to know, understand, and explore many years after his original hierarchy was formulated. Esteem needs: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition People move up the pyramid as Belongingness and love needs: to be they go with others, be accepted, and belong Safety needs: to feel secure and safe, out of danger Physiological needs: to satisfy hunger, thirst, fatigue, etc. *hierarchy: a graded or ranked series.  motivation and emotion 363 through life, gaining wisdom and the knowledge of how to handle many different situa- tions. But a shift in life’s circumstances can result in a shift down to a lower need. Mov- 9.1 ing up and down and then back up can occur frequently—even from one hour to the next. Times in a person’s life in which self-actualization is achieved, at least temporarily, 9.2 are called peak experiences. For Maslow, the process of growth and self-actualization is the striving to make peak experiences happen again and again. 9.3 Does this theory apply universally? In the movie Castaway, Tom Hanks’s character is stranded on a deserted 9.4 Maslow’s theory has had a powerful influence on the field of management (Heil island. His first concern is to find et al., 1998) and has spawned new ideas and concepts of what might be an appropriate re- something to eat and fresh water vised hierarchy. to Learning Objective B.7. In spite of this influence, Maslow’s to drink—without those two things, 9.5 theory is not without its critics. There are several problems that others have highlighted, he cannot survive. Even while he is and the most serious is that there is little scientific support (Drenth et al., 1984). Like building a crude shelter, he is still Sigmund Freud, Maslow developed his theory based on his personal observations of peo- thinking about how to obtain food. 9.6 Once he has those needs met, ple rather than any empirically gathered observations or research. Although many people however, he gets lonely. He finds a report that while they were starving, they could think of nothing but food, there is anec- volleyball, paints a handprint and dotal evidence in the lives of many people, some of them quite well known, that the lower then a crude face on it, and names it 9.7 needs do not have to be satisfied before moving on to a higher need (Drenth et al., 1984). “Wilson.” He talks to the volleyball For example, artists and scientists throughout history have been known to deny their as if it were a person, at first as a kind of way to talk out the things he 9.8 own physical needs while producing great works (a self-actualization need). needs to do and later as a way of Maslow’s work was also based on his studies of Americans. Cross-cultural research staying relatively sane. The need for suggests that the order of needs on the hierarchy does not always hold true for other cul- companionship is that strong. 9.9 tures, particularly those cultures with a stronger tendency than the culture of the United States to avoid uncertainty, such as Greece and Japan. In those countries security needs are much stronger than self-actualization needs in determining motivation (Hofstede, 9.10 1980; Hofstede et al., 2002). This means that people in those cultures value job secu- rity more than they do job satisfaction (holding an interesting or challenging job). In countries such as Sweden and Norway, which stress the quality of life as being of greater importance than what a person produces, social needs may be more important than self- actualization needs (Hofstede et al., 2002). to Learning Objective 13.7. Other theorists (Alderfer, 1972; Kenrick et al., 2010) have developed and refined Maslow’s hierarchy. Douglas Kenrick and colleagues have suggested a modification to Maslow’s original hierarchy that encompasses aspects of evolutionary biology, anthropol- ogy, and psychology. Their modification incorporates dynamics between internal motives and environmental threats and opportunities (Kenrick et al., 2010). However, their revi- sion has not been without critique and has spawned further contemplation. Some ele- ments of Kenrick’s theory have been challenged, including a questioning of its focus on evolutionary aspects instead of human cultural influences (Kesebir et al., 2010), and its removal of self-actualization from both the pinnacle of the pyramid and from the hier- archy altogether as a stand-alone motive (Peterson & Park, 2010). Just as there are many aspects to motivation, any revision or discussion of an appropriate hierarchy of needs will need to take into account a wide variety of opinions and viewpoints. SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) Another theory of motivation that is similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the self-determination theory (SDT) of Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000). In this theory, there are three inborn and universal needs that help people gain a complete sense of self and whole, healthy relationships with others. The three needs are autonomy, or the need to be in control of one’s own behavior and goals (i.e., self-determination); competence, or the need to be able to master the challeng- ing tasks of one’s life; and relatedness, or the need to feel a sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others. These needs are common in several theories of personality; the relatedness need is, of course, similar to Maslow’s belongingness and love needs, and both autonomy and competence are important aspects of Erikson’s theory  364 CHAPTER 9 of psychosocial personality development (Erikson, 1950, 1980). to Learning 9.1 Objective 8.7. Ryan, Deci, and their colleagues (Deci et al., 1994; Ryan & Deci, 2000) believe that satisfying these needs can best be accomplished if the person has a supportive environment 9.2 in which to develop goals and relationships with others. Such satisfaction will not only fos- ter healthy psychological growth but also increase the individual’s intrinsic motivation (ac- 9.3 tions are performed because they are internally rewarding or satisfying). Evidence suggests that intrinsic motivation is increased or enhanced when a person not only feels competence (through experiencing positive feedback from others and succeeding at what are perceived to 9.4 be challenging tasks) but also a sense of autonomy or the knowledge that his or her actions are self-determined rather than controlled by others (deCharms, 1968; Deci & Ryan, 1985). Previous research has found a negative impact on intrinsic motivation when an ex- 9.5 ternal reward is given for the performance (Deci et al., 1999), but while other studies find “That is the correct answer, Bill, but I’m afraid you don’t win anything negative effects only for tasks that are not interesting in and of themselves (Cameron et for it.” al., 2001). When the task itself is interesting to the person (as might be an assignment 9.6 ©The New Yorker Collection 1986 Lee that an instructor or manager has explained in terms of its importance and future value), Lorenz from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved. external rewards may increase intrinsic motivation, at least in the short term. Although this finding is intriguing, further research is needed to determine if the long-term effects 9.7 of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation are consistently negative, as the bulk of the research has shown up to now. 9.8 But don’t we sometimes do things for both kinds of motives? 9.9 There are usually elements of both intrinsic and extrinsic motives in many of the things people do. Most teachers, for example, work for money to pay bills (the extrinsic motive) but may also feel that they are helping young children to become better adults in 9.10 the future, which makes the teachers feel good about themselves (the intrinsic motive). How universal are these three needs? Some cultures, such as the United States and Great Britain, are individualistic, stressing the needs of the individual over the group, in- dependence, and self-reliance. Other cultures are collectivistic, such as those in Japan and China, and stress strong social ties, interdependence, and cooperation. Cross-cultural re- search indicates that even across such different cultures, the needs for autonomy, mastery, and belongingness are of similar importance (Chirkov, 2009; Chirkov et al., 2011; Ryan et al., 1999; Sheldon, 2012). Explore the Concept at MyPsychLab 9.3 9.4 CONCEPT MAP arousal theory suggests people have an optimal arousal level of tension that they work to maintain need for stimulation a moderate level is most commonly sought, but that level can range from low to high (sensation seeking) incentive based in part on principles of learning things that attract or lure people into action, most often due to rewarding properties other modifications differ in number of levels humanistic and areas of focus based primarily on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; primary, self-determination theory: similar to Maslow’s hierarchy, basic needs must be met before three universal needs are autonomy, competence, and relatedness higher levels can be met (see Fig. 9.3) Approaches to Understanding Motivation (continued)  motivation and emotion 365 PRACTICE quiz How Much Do You Remember? ANSWERS AVAILABLE IN ANSWER KEY. 9.1 Pick the best answer. 1. According to arousal theory, people are motivated towards 4. In Maslow’s theory, how often do people reach a point of __________ level of arousal. self-actualization? 9.2 a. their highest a. Most people reach a state of self-actualization before b. their lowest they reach adulthood. c. their optimum b. Most people reach a state of self-actualization as they 9.3 d. their minimal finish adolescence. 2. In terms of arousal and task difficulty, easy tasks typically de- c. Seldom, although there are times in a person’s life when mand a __________ level for optimal performance, whereas they are self-actualized at least temporarily. 9.4 difficult tasks require a __________ level. d. No one ever reaches the ultimate state. Our motivations a. high–moderate; low–moderate express themselves in how we try to attain it. b. low–moderate; high–moderate 5. In Ryan and Deci’s self-determination theory, what is the key 9.5 c. either a high or low; medium to achieving one’s needs for autonomy, competence, and d. low; low relatedness? 3. In the strictest sense, what is incentive theory based on? a. an instinctual motivation b. support from others around you 9.6 a. sensation and perception b. learning theory c. a motivation often driven by heredity c. social conformity d. a driving desire not to be a failure d. internal unconscious forces 9.7 THINKING CRITICALLY: What motivates you while you are in this psychology course? 9.8 What, Hungry Again? Why People Eat 9.9 Satisfying hunger is one of our most primary needs. The eating habits of people today have become a major concern and a frequent topic of news programs, talk shows, and 9.10 scientific research. Countless pills, supplements, and treatments are available to “help” people eat less and others to eat more. Eating is not only a basic survival behavior that re- duces a primary drive; it is also a form of entertainment for many, and the attractive pre- sentations and social environment of many eating experiences are a powerful incentive. PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF HUNGER 9.5 What happens in the body to cause hunger, and how do social factors influence a person’s experience of hunger? Why do we eat? What causes us to feel hungry in the first place? There are actually several factors involved in the hunger drive. Walter Cannon (Cannon & Washburn, 1912) believed that stomach contractions, or “hunger pangs,” caused hunger and that the presence of food in the stomach would stop the contractions and appease the hunger drive. Oddly enough, having an empty stomach is not the decid- ing factor in many cases. Although the stomach does have sensory receptors that respond to the pressure of the stretching stomach muscles as food is piled in and that send signals to the brain indicating that the stomach is full (Geliebter, 1988), people who have had their stomachs removed still get hungry ( Janowitz, 1967). HORMONAL INFLUENCES One factor in hunger seems to be the insulin response that occurs after we begin to eat. Insulin and glucagon are hormones that are secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the whole body, including glucose (blood sugar). Insulin reduces the level of glucose in the bloodstream, for example, whereas glucagon increases the level. Insulin, normally released in greater amounts after eating has begun, causes a feeling of more hunger because of the drop in blood sugar levels. Carbohydrates, especially those that are simple or highly refined (such  366 CHAPTER 9 as table sugar, fruit drinks, white flour, and white bread or pasta), cause the insulin level to 9.1 spike even more than other foods do because there is such a large amount of glucose re- leased by these foods at one time. High blood sugar leads to more insulin released, which leads to a low blood sugar level, increased appetite, and the tendency to overeat. That is 9.2 the basic principle behind many of the diets that promote low-carbohydrate intake. The proponents of these diets argue that if people control the carbohydrates, they can control 9.3 the insulin reaction and prevent hunger cravings later on. In recent years, a hormone called leptin has been identified as one of the factors that controls appetite. When released into the bloodstream, leptin signals the hypothala- 9.4 mus that the body has had enough food, reducing appetite and increasing the feeling of being full, or satiated. THE ROLE OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS The stomach and the pancreas are only two of the 9.5 body parts involved in hunger. In Chapter Two the role of the hypothalamus in control- ling many kinds of motivational stimuli, including hunger, was seen as a result of its 9.6 influence on the pituitary. But the hypothalamus itself has different areas, controlled by the levels of glucose and insulin in the body, which appear to control eating behavior. Explore the Concept, The Effects of the Hypothalamus on Eating Behavior, at MyPsychLab 9.7 The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) may be involved in stopping the eating re- sponse when glucose levels go up (Neary et al., 2004). In one study, rats whose VMH ar- eas (located toward the bottom and center of the hypothalamus) were damaged would no 9.8 longer stop eating—they ate and ate until they were quite overweight (Hetherington & Ranson, 1940). (See Figure 9.4 for a picture of a rat with this kind of damage.) However, they did not eat everything in sight. They actually got rather picky, only overeating on 9.9 food that appealed to them (Ferguson & Keesey, 1975; Parkinson & Weingarten, 1990). In fact, if all the food available to them was unappealing, they did not become obese and in some cases even lost weight. 9.10 Figure 9.4 Obese Laboratory Rat Another part of the hypothalamus, located on the side and called the lateral hypo- The rat on the left has reached a thalamus (LH), seems to influence the onset of eating when insulin levels go up (Neary high level of obesity because its et al., 2004). Damage to this area caused rats to stop eating to the point of starvation. ventromedial hypothalamus has They would eat only if force-fed and still lost weight under those conditions (Anand & been deliberately damaged in the Brobeck, 1951; Hoebel & Teitelbaum, 1966). laboratory. The result is a rat that no longer receives signals of being WEIGHT SET POINT AND BASAL METABOLIC RATE Obviously, the role of the hypo- satiated, and so the rat continues to thalamus in eating behavior is complex. Some researchers (Leibel et al., 1995; Nisbett, eat and eat and eat. 1972) believe that the hypothalamus affects the particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain, called the weight set point. Injury to the hypothalamus does raise or lower the weight set point rather dramatically, causing either drastic weight loss or weight gain. Metabolism, the speed at which the body burns available energy, and exercise also play a part in the weight set point. Some people are no doubt genetically wired to have faster metabolisms, and those people can eat large amounts of food without gaining weight. Others have slower metabolisms and may eat a normal or even less than nor- mal amount of food and still gain weight or have difficulty losing it (Bouchard et al., 1990). (Some people swear they can gain weight just by looking at a piece of cake!) Regu- lar, moderate exercise can help offset the slowing of metabolism and the increase in the weight set point that comes with it (Tremblay et al., 1999). The rate at which the body burns energy when a person is resting is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and is directly tied to the set point. If a person’s BMR decreases (as it does in adulthood and with decreased activity levels), that person’s weight set point increases if the same number of calories is consumed. Table 9.2 shows the changes in BMR of a typical woman and man as age increases from 10 years to 80 years. Notice that the BMR decreases more dramatically as the age of the person increases. Adolescents typically have a very high BMR and activity level and, therefore, a lower weight set point,  motivation and emotion 367 Table 9.2 9.1 Average Basal Metabolic Rates for a Female and Male AGE RANGE AGES 10–18 AGES 19–30 AGES 31–60 AGES 61–80 9.2 1 Female (5 /2 ft.) 1,770* 1,720 1,623 1,506 Male (6 ft.) 2,140 2,071 1,934 1,770 9.3 *Numbers in the table represent the number of calories a person needs to consume each day to maintain body weight (without exercise). 9.4 meaning they can eat far more than an adult of the same size and not gain weight. But when that adolescent becomes an adult, the BMR begins to decline. Adults should re- duce the number of calories they consume and exercise most every day, but the tendency 9.5 is to eat more and move less as income levels and job demands increase. Even if the eat- ing habits of the teenage years are simply maintained, excessive weight gain is not far 9.6 behind. (In some people, the excessive weight gain may be mostly “behind.”) If you would like to calculate your own BMR, there are numerous Internet sites that allow a person to enter data such as height, age, weight, and activity level. The BMR 9.7 is then automatically calculated according to a standard formula. Simply type “basal met- abolic rate calculator” into your Web search engine to find these sites. 9.8 SOCIAL COMPONENTS OF HUNGER People often eat when they are not really hungry. There are all sorts of social cues that tell people to eat, such as the convention of eating breakfast, lunch, and dinner at certain 9.9 times. A large part of that “convention” is actually the result of classical conditioning. to Learning Objective 5.2. The body becomes conditioned to respond with the hunger reflex at certain times of the day; through association with the act of eating, 9.10 those times of the day have become conditioned stimuli for hunger. Sometimes a person who has just eaten a late breakfast will still “feel” hungry at noon, simply because the clock says it’s time to eat. People also respond to the appeal of food. How many times has someone finished a huge meal only to be tempted by that luscious-looking cheesecake on the dessert cart? To see whether you have any implicit preferences toward either healthy food or junk food, participate in the experiment Implicit Association Test: Food. Simulation Implicit Association Test: Food This Implicit Association Test asks you to classify a set of words or images into groups. Your goal is to classify items as quickly and as accurately as you can. Go to the Experiment Simulate the Experiment, Implicit Association Test: Food, on MyPsychLab  368 CHAPTER 9 Food can also be used in times of stress as a comforting routine, an immediate es- 9.1 cape from whatever is unpleasant (Dallman et al., 2003). Rodin (1981, 1985) found that the insulin levels that create hunger may actually increase before food is eaten (similar to the way Pavlov’s dogs began salivating before they received their food). Like getting hun- 9.2 gry at a certain time of day, this physiological phenomenon may also be due to classical conditioning: In the past, eating foods with certain visual and sensory characteristics led to 9.3 an insulin spike, and this pairing occurred so frequently that now just looking at or smell- ing the food produces the spike before the food is consumed (Stockhorst, 1999). This may explain why some people (who are called “externals” because of their tendency to focus on 9.4 the external features of food rather than internal hunger) are far more responsive to these external signals—they produce far more insulin in response to the anticipation of eating than do nonexternals, or people who are less affected by external cues (Rodin, 1985). 9.5 Cultural factors and gender also play a part in determining hunger and eating habits. In one study, a questionnaire about eating habits was given to both men and women from the United States and Japan. Although no significant differences in what initiates eating 9.6 existed for men in either culture, women in the United States were found to be much more likely to start eating for emotional reasons, such as depression. Japanese women were more likely to eat because of hunger signals or social demands (Hawks et al., 2003). In this same 9.7 study, both men and women from the United States were more likely to eat while watch- ing television or movies than were Japanese men and women. Both culture and gender 9.8 must be taken into account when studying why and under what circumstances people eat. (top) Cultural factors play an OBESITY important part in why people eat. 9.9 Women in Japan have been found to be motivated to eat by hunger 9.6 What are some biological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to obesity? and social demands, illustrated by 9.10 the interaction during a meal at this It would be nice if people all over the world ate just the amount of food that they needed family gathering. and were able to maintain a healthy, normal weight. Unfortunately, that is not the case for (bottom) Women in the United many people. Some people weigh far more than they should, whereas others weigh far less. States may eat because they are Several maladaptive eating problems, including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, depressed or for other emotional and binge-eating disorder, are classified as clinical (mental) disorders in the Diagnostic reasons, rather than just to appease and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, or DSM-5 (American Psychiatric hunger or as part of a social Association, 2013), which is a listing of disorders and their symptoms used by psycho- situation. Obviously, this woman does not need the social trappings logical professionals to make a diagnosis. These disorders are discussed in a later chapter. of a bowl, dining table, and the to Learning Objective 14.6. company of others to motivate her In this chapter, we look at the problem of obesity. Why do some people get so fat? eating habits—unless you count Is it just overeating? the cat. There are several factors that contribute to obesity, a condition in which the body weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height. Actual definitions of obesity vary. Some definitions consider 20 to 30 percent to be overweight and limit obesity to 30 percent or more. Others state that men are obese at 20 percent over the ideal weight and women at 30 percent. However it is defined, a significant factor in obesity is hered- ity. There appear to be several sets of genes, some on different chromosomes, which influence a person’s likelihood of becoming obese (Barsh et al., 2000). If there is a history of obesity in a particular family, each family member has a risk of becoming obese that is double or triple the risk of people who do not have a family history of obesity (Bouchard, 1997). Hormones also play a role, particularly leptin, which plays an important part in controlling appetite. Problems with leptin production or detection can lead to overeating (Friedman & Halaas, 1998). Certainly, another obesity factor is overeating. Around the world, as developing countries build stronger economies and their food supplies become stable, the rates of obesity increase dramatically and quickly (Barsh et al., 2000). Foods become more varied and enticing* as well, and an increase in variety is associated with an increase in eating beyond the physiological need *enticing: attractive; desirable.  motivation and emotion 369 to eat (Raynor & Epstein, 2001). In industrialized soci- eties when workers spend more hours in the workplace, 9.1 there is less time available for preparing meals at home and more incentive to dine out (Chou et al., 2004). 9.2 When the “dining out” choices include fast food and soft drinks, as is so often the case, obesity rates increase. In sum, as cultures become more industrialized and follow 9.3 Western-culture lifestyles, negative aspects of those life- styles, such as obesity, also increase. Over the last 20 years, rates of obesity in developing countries have tri- 9.4 pled. Specifically, this is a trend in countries that have adopted the Western lifestyle of lower exercise rates and overeating—especially those foods that are cheap but 9.5 high in fat and calories. In China, as well as many coun- This family is becoming more typical tries in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific in the United States as obesity rates Islands, 10 to 25 percent of children have been found to 9.6 continue to rise. How much of the be overweight and another 2 to 10 percent are obese excess weight on each of these (Hossain et al., 2007). family members is caused by poor choices in diet and lack of exercise, 9.7 As mentioned earlier, metabolism slows down as and how much might be caused by people age. Aside from not changing the eating habits inherited biological factors? of their youth and lowering their intake, as they earn 9.8 more income people also often increase the amount of food they consume, thereby assuring a weight gain that may lead to obesity. The United States has the highest rate of obesity in the world: a third of its population is now obese (Flegal et al., 2012; Friedman, 2000, 2003; 9.9 Marik, 2000; Mokdad et al., 2001). 9.10 psychology in the news Cartoon Characters Influence Children’s Food and Taste Preferences Since the 1970s, rates of obesity have doubled for American preschoolers and more than tripled for children ages 6 to 11; these alarming statistics, not surpris- ingly, are of concern to parents and health-care professionals alike. Each year, food and beverage companies spend more than $1.6 billion targeting young consumers through television, the Internet, video games, and movie- or television-character licensing agree- ments (Roberto et al., 2010). Many parents are all too familiar with the allure of cartoon and movie characters on a va- riety of food items. Whether it is the call of the character on the cereal box or the special toy in their child’s meal, many American children are seemingly motivated primarily by the car- toon or movie character on the product packaging or the enticing toy or gadget associated with the character. Getting the special prize or toy is one thing, but can the use of licensed characters also affect food preferences? According to researchers at Yale University and a study of forty 4- to 6-year-old children, the answer is “yes!” The researchers paired stickers of Dora the Explorer®, Scooby Doo®, and Shrek® with three different snacks: graham crackers, gummy fruit snacks, and baby carrots. Overall children preferred the taste of food items that were presented with cartoon characters as compared to plain packag- ing; they especially preferred the taste of gummy snacks and graham crackers paired with the char- acters. Although character stickers were not enough to influence taste preferences, children were more likely to choose baby carrots with character stickers as compared to those in plain packaging. Despite the relatively small sample size and a few other limitations noted by the re- searchers, the outcomes of this study provide preliminary support that the use of licensed  370 CHAPTER 9 characters can influence not only children’s eating habits but their taste preferences as well. 9.1 The researchers noted that recognition of the potential negative influences toward poorer nutritional choices should be acknowledged and has implications for the continued use of such characters in the marketing of lower nutritional food items (Roberto et al., 2010). An- 9.2 other study by different researchers yielded similar findings (Lapierre et al., 2011). Questions for Further Discussion 9.3 1. Besides the influence of cartoon and movie characters, how might observational learning It is possible that cartoon and impact what a child chooses to eat? movie characters on fast-food 9.4 packaging can not only influence 2. This study focused on the eating habits of young children. What about teenagers and what children choose to eat, but adults? Can you think of a food product or products that these age groups might be affect their taste preferences as influenced to try or like as the result of influential figures (e.g., professional athletes)? 9.5 well. Explore the Concept at MyPsychLab 9.6 9.5 9.6 CONCEPT MAP impacted by insulin response; insulin (normally released more after onset of eating) reduces level of glucose 9.7 hunger in bloodstream (resulting in lower blood sugar and increased hunger); glucagon increases level of glucose ventromedial area of the hypothalamus may be involved in stopping eating when glucose level goes up; lateral hypothalamus appears to influence onset of eating when insulin level goes up 9.8 person’s weight set point and basal metabolic rate are tied to hypothalamus, and the hormone leptin appears to affect appetite hunger and eating behaviors are influenced by social cues and convention (e.g., eating at certain times), 9.9 culture, and gender Why People Eat 9.10 obesity: body weight 20% or more over ideal (based on height); significantly impacted by genetics, overeating, exercise, and changes in metabolism maladaptive eating anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa to Chapter Fourteen, Psychological Disorders binge-eating disorder PRACTICE quiz How Much Do You Remember? ANSWERS AVAILABLE IN ANSWER KEY. Pick the best answer. 1. Damage to the __________ in rats can cause them to starve 4. Jermaine eats a late breakfast at 10:00 A.M. but finds he to death while damage to the __________ will cause them to is hungry at 11:30 A.M. when he typically eats lunch. What eat and eat and eat. best explains his hunger pains only 90 minutes after eating a. pancreas; stomach breakfast? b. liver; kidneys a. heredity c. classical conditioning c. ventromedial hypothalamus; lateral hypothalamus b. social pressure d. self-actualization d. lateral hypothalamus; ventromedial hypothalamus 5. In cultures where Western lifestyles of eating and exercising 2. The rate at which the body burns energy while at rest is have been adopted, obesity rates have _____________ over known as the last 20 years. a. weight set point. a. remained relatively stable c. doubled b. basal metabolic rate. b. decreased slightly d. tripled c. leptin. 6. According to researchers at Yale, what might be one way to d. glucagon. get children to eat more carrots? 3. If calorie intake stays the same, as the basal metabolic rate a. Include the word “healthy” o