MODULE-3.pptx

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE 2 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS - 1 (QUALITATIVE): Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal transmission, EEG, Robotic arms for prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s disease). Eye as a Camera sy...

BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS MODULE 2 HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS - 1 (QUALITATIVE): Brain as a CPU system (architecture, CNS and Peripheral Nervous System, signal transmission, EEG, Robotic arms for prosthetics. Engineering solutions for Parkinson’s disease). Eye as a Camera system (architecture of rod and cone cells, optical corrections, cataract, lens materials, bionic eye). Heart as a pump system (architecture, electrical signaling - ECG monitoring and heart related issues, reasons for blockages of blood vessels, design of stents, pace makers, defibrillators). HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS The human body is a biological machine made up of various organ systems. Organ systems are made up of various organs working together to perform a vital body function. There are primarily 11 organ systems namely: 1. Skeletal system, 2. Muscular system, 3. Cardiovascular system, 4. Respiratory system, 5. Nervous system, 6. Digestive system, 7. Urinary system, 8. Endocrine system, 9. Lymphatic system, 10.Reproductive system, 11.Integumentary (Exocrine) system. Role and function of the organ Systems. Biodesign is the use of living organisms in design. Its processes can be used in the creation of fashion, textiles, furniture and architecture. Nonprofit design companies and universities around the world, increasingly implement biodesign practices into research and product development. This presents a new frontier in terms of design with nature as opposed to design by nature in the case of bio-inspired design. Bio-design was coined by William Myers in 2012 as “an emerging and often radical approach to design that draws on biological tenets and even incorporates the use of living materials into structures, objects and tools” (Myers, 2012).  BRAIN AS A CPU SYSTEM Both CPU and brain use electrical signals to send messages. The brain uses chemicals to transmit information; the computer uses electricity. Even though electrical signals travel at high speeds in the nervous system, they travel even faster through the wires in a computer. Both transmit information.  The CPU is the brain of a computer, containing all the circuitry needed to process input, store data, and output the results. The CPU is constantly following instructions of computer programs that inform as to which data needs to be processed and how. The memory capacity of a human brain was testified to be equal to 2.5 petabytes, which is equivalent to 2.5 million gigabytes of memory. Comparing computer and brain frequencies, Bostrom noted that “biological neurons operate at a peak speed of about 200 Hz, a full seven orders Architecture of human Brain The human brain is one part of the nervous system. That’s the control system that sends instructions to all the other parts of your body. The human Brain has many different parts. Each one plays a different function. But they all work together to manage complex thoughts, feelings and behaviours. The three main parts of the brain Fig: Parts of a neuron  On average, an adult human brain weighs about 1300 grams. It uses about 20% of the body’s energy. The brain helps coordinate all of the body’s internal and external actions. Without your brain, you wouldn’t be able to sneeze, kick a ball or send a text. The brain has three main parts. They are the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem. 1. The cerebellum helps fine-tune your muscle movement. For example, it helps control balance, posture and motor learning. 2. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, spanning both the left and right hemispheres. It sits on top of the cerebellum and the brainstem. Many of your body’s higher functions rely on the cerebrum. For instance, it controls touch, vision, hearing, speech and fine motor skills. You also need your cerebrum to interpret emotions, solve problems and learn. 3. The brainstem connects the base of the brain to the spinal cord. It helps coordinate the brain’s communication with the rest of the body. The brainstem also helps coordinate involuntary actions like breathing and heart rate. Interior parts of the brain including the (1) corpus callosum, (2) thalamus, (3) hypothalamus, (4) pituitary gland, and (5) pineal gland. Nervous System The nervous system helps all the parts of the body to communicate with each other. It also reacts to changes both outside and inside the body. The nervous system uses both electrical and chemical means to send and receive messages. The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). CNS is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the body’s “control center.” The CNS has various centers located within it that carry out the sensory, motor and integration of data. These centers can be subdivided to Lower Centers (including the spinal cord and brain stem) and higher centers communicating with the brain via effectors. CNS is usually considered to have seven basic parts: the spinal cord, the medulla, the pons, the midbrain, the cerebellum, the diencephalon, and the cerebral hemispheres. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION A neuron sending a signal (i.e., a presynaptic neuron) releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter, which binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving (i.e., postsynaptic) neuron. ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM [EEG] An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test that measures electrical activity in the brain using small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp. Brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and are active all the time, even during sleep. This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording. An EEG is one of the main diagnostic tests for epilepsy. An EEG can also play a role in diagnosing other brain disorders. An EEG can find changes in brain activity that might be useful in diagnosing brain disorders, especially epilepsy or another seizure disorder. An EEG might also be helpful for diagnosing or treating Brain tumors, Brain damage due to head injury, Brain dysfunction that can have a variety of causes (encephalopathy), Sleep disorders, Inflammation of ROBOTIC ARMS FOR PROSTHETICS Robotic prosthetic limb is a well-established research area that integrates advanced mechatronics, intelligent sensing, and control for achieving higher order lost sensorimotor functions while maintaining the physical appearance of amputated limb. Robotic prosthetic limbs are expected to replace the missing limbs of an amputee restoring the lost functions and providing aesthetic appearance. The main aspects are enhanced social interaction, comfortable amputee’s life, and productive amputee to the society. With the advancement of sensor technology, in the last few decades significant contributions have been made in this area. Deep Brain Stimulation Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) involves surgically implanting a neurotransmitter that sends electrical impulses to specific areas of your brain. This procedure has helped many people with Parkinson's reduce symptoms such as tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia. EYE AS A CAMERA SYSTEM The human eye is a wonderful instrument, relying on refraction and lenses to form images. There are many similarities between the human eye and a camera, including: A diaphragm to control the amount of light that gets through to the lens. This is the shutter in a camera, and the pupil, at the center of the iris, in the human eye. A lens to focus the light and create an image. The image is real and inverted. A method of sensing the image. In a camera, film is used to record the image; in the eye, the image is focused on the retina, and a system of rods and cones is the front end of an image-processing system that converts the image to electrical impulses and sends the information along the optic nerve to the brain. Photoreceptors in the retina are classified into two groups, named after their physical morphologies, into rods and cones. These photoreceptors are localized around an area near the centre of the retina called the macula, which is the functional center of the retina OPTICAL CORRECTIONS A slight modification of geometrically correct lines (as of a building) for the purpose of making them appear correct to the eye. The ability to see images or objects with clear, sharp vision results from light entering the eye. Light rays bend or refract when they hit the retina, sending nerve signals to the optic nerve, which then sends these signals to the brain. The brain processes them into images, allowing you to understand what you see. When these light rays bend incorrectly, it results in a refractive error and typically causes blurry or cloudy vision. Since the primary cause of vision problems is caused by light bending incorrectly as it enters the eye, virtually any method of treatment that changes this can be categorized as a form of vision correction. Eyeglasses and contact lenses – the most common types of corrective measures – are almost always recommended as the first course of treatment for vision problems. While they are considered a very basic method of vision correction, they are unable to control the refractive error from progressing. Patients whose vision worsens over time need new glasses or contacts. In these cases, longer-term solutions are needed. CATARACT A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of the eye. At first, the cloudiness in your vision caused by a cataract may affect only a small part of the eye's lens and you may be unaware of any vision loss. As the cataract grows larger, it clouds more of your lens and distorts the light passing through the lens. This may lead to more-noticeable symptoms. A cataract is a cloudy lens. The lens is positioned behind the colored part of your eye (iris). The lens focuses light that passes into your eye, producing clear, sharp images on the retina — the light-sensitive membrane in the eye that functions like the film in a camera. As you age, the lenses in your eyes become less flexible, less transparent and thicker. Age-related and other medical conditions cause proteins and fibers within the lenses to break down and clump together, clouding the lenses EYE LENS MATERIALS Corrective spherocylindrical lenses are commonly used to treat refractive errors such as myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia, and astigmatism. Both lenses and prisms are also frequently used to improve eye alignment and treat diplopia in strabismus. Eyeglasses also serve an important role in protecting the eyes from physical trauma and harmful radiation. Lenses can be produced using a variety of materials and designed with several optical profiles to optimize use in specific applications. There are 4 main types of lens materials for eyeglasses and Types of lens materials: 1.CR-39 -The most commonly used plastic lens material 2. Crown Glass is the most commonly used clear glass for ophthalmic lenses. In general, glass is the most durable material used for lenses. Crown glass is used mainly for single vision lenses and the distance carrier for most glass bifocals and trifocals. 3. Flint Glass uses lead oxides in its chemical make up to increase its index of refraction to approximately 1.58 to 1.69. This material is relatively soft, displays a brilliant luster and has chromatic aberration. Although it was used in the past as a single vision alternative for higher Rx lenses, its use today is often limited to segments for some fused bifocals.The advantages of glass lenses include optical clarity, resistance to scratches, and it is the least susceptible to chemicals. The disadvantages include that it is the heaviest material and it is less impact resistant than other materials.  BIONIC EYES Bionic eye, is an electrical prosthesis which is surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the transduction of light (the change of light from the environment into impulses the brain can process) in people who have sustained severe damage to the retina. The bionic eye comprises an external camera and transmitter and an internal microchip. The camera is mounted on a pair of eyeglasses, where it serves to organize the visual stimuli of the environment before emitting high-frequency radio waves. www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhYe6REdljw HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM Heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart receives blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the body. The human heart is very strong and is capable of pumping blood up to 30 feet distance. An average heart beats maximum of 70-80 beats per minute and is considered healthy. The efficiency of the heart can be maintained and improved by Heart - Pump Of The Circulatory System Do you know that in a year your heart beats over 30 million times? This means in a lifespan of 80 years, it would be around 2.5 billion times. How does the heart make up its pace? What are the different parts of a heart?  ELECTRICAL SIGNALING The sinus node generates an electrical stimulus regularly, 60 to 100 times per minute under normal conditions. The atria are then activated. The electrical stimulus travels down through the conduction pathways and causes the heart's ventricles to contract and pump out blood. ECG MONITORING ECG monitoring systems have been developed and widely used in the healthcare sector for the past few decades and have significantly evolved over time due to the emergence of smart enabling technologies. Nowadays, ECG monitoring systems are used in hospitals, homes, outpatient ambulatory settings, and in remote contexts. They also employ a wide range of technologies such as IoT , edge computing, and mobile computing. In addition, they implement various computational settings in terms of processing frequencies, as well as monitoring schemes. They have also evolved to serve purposes and targets other than disease diagnosis and control, including daily activities, sports, and even mode-related purposes. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwLbSx9 BNbU 1. Cardiovascular diseases including heart failure (HF). 2. REASONS FOR BLOCKAGES OF BLOOD VESSELS: Coronary artery disease is a common heart condition. The major blood vessels that supply the heart (coronary arteries) struggle to send enough blood, oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscle. Cholesterol deposits (plaques) in the heart arteries and inflammation are usually the cause of coronary artery disease. Signs and symptoms of coronary artery disease occur when the heart doesn't get enough oxygen-rich blood. DESIGN OF STENTS A stent is a tiny tube that can play a big role in treating your heart disease. It helps keep your arteries -- the blood vessels that carry blood from your heart to other parts of your body, including the heart muscle itself -- open. Why Would You Need a Stent? If a fatty substance called plaque builds up inside an artery, it can reduce blood flow to your heart. This is called coronary heart disease and it can cause chest pain. DESIGN The majority of these stents are constructed from a nickel titanium alloy. Balloon expandable stents are susceptible to permanent deformation when they are compressed extrinsically, which is not an issue in the coronary tree.  PACE MAKERS A pacemaker is a small device that's placed (implanted) in the chest to help control the heartbeat. It's used to prevent the heart from beating too slowly. Implanting a pacemaker in the chest requires a surgical procedure. A pacemaker is also called a cardiac pacing device. Types Single chamber pacemaker. This type usually carries electrical impulses to the right ventricle of your heart. Dual chamber pacemaker. This type carries electrical impulses to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WgKCUjPcDY0 A pacemaker has two parts: Pulse generator. This small metal container houses a battery and the electrical circuitry that controls the rate of electrical pulses sent to the heart. Leads (electrodes). One to three flexible, insulated wires are each placed in one or more chambers of the heart and deliver electrical pulses to adjust the heart rate. However, some newer pacemakers don't require leads. These devices, called leadless pacemakers, are implanted directly into the heart muscle.  DEFIBRILLATORS Defibrillators are devices that send an electric pulse or shock to the heart to restore a normal heartbeat. they are used to prevent or correct an arrhythmia, an uneven heartbeat that is too slow or too fast. If the heart suddenly stops, defibrillators can also help it beat again. Different types of defibrillators work in different ways. Automated external defibrillators (AEDs), which are now found in many public spaces, are used to save the lives of people experiencing cardiac arrest. Even untrained bystanders can use these devices in an emergency.  There are three types of defibrillators: AEDs, ICDs, and WCDs. An AED is a lightweight, battery-operated, portable device that checks the heart’s rhythm and sends a shock to the heart to restore normal rhythm. The device is used to help people having cardiac arrest. ICDs are placed through surgery in the chest or stomach area, where the device can check for arrhythmias. Arrhythmias can interrupt the flow of blood from your heart to the rest of your body or cause your heart to stop. The ICD sends a shock to restore a normal heart rhythm. WCDs have sensors that attach to the skin. They are connected by wires to a unit that checks your heart’s rhythm and delivers shocks when needed. Like an ICD, the WCD can deliver low- and high-energy shocks. The device has a belt attached to a vest that is worn under your clothes.  LUNGS AS A PURIFICATION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION: Every cell in your body needs oxygen to live. The air we breathe contains oxygen and other gases. The respiratory system's main job is to move fresh air into your body while removing waste gases. Once in the lungs, oxygen is moved into the bloodstream and carried through your body. At each cell in your body, oxygen is exchanged for a waste gas called carbon dioxide. Your bloodstream then carries this waste gas back to the lungs where it is removed from the bloodstream and then exhaled. Your lungs and the respiratory system automatically perform this vital process, called gas exchange. In addition to gas exchange, your respiratory system performs other roles important to breathing. These include: Bringing air to the proper body temperature and moisturizing it to the right humidity level. Protecting your body from harmful substances. This is done by coughing, sneezing, filtering, or swallowing them. Supporting your sense of smell. How the Lungs Work The lungs are a vital part of the respiratory system, which allows In addition you to breathe. to the lungs, the respiratory system includes airways that carry air in and out help youof your lungs, blood vessels surrounding the lungs, and breathe. the muscles that Airways The body uses several channels to bring oxygen-rich air into the lungs and release carbon dioxide (a waste gas) out of the lungs. The body’s airways include: Nasal cavities Mouth Voice box (called the larynx) Windpipe (called the trachea) Bronchial tubes When you take a breath through your nose or mouth, the air is warmed and humidified, and then moved through your voice box and down the windpipe. From there, it travels down two bronchial tubes that enter the lungs. A thin flap of tissue, the epiglottis, blocks your windpipe when you swallow to prevent food and liquid from entering. When you breathe out, air leaves the body through your airways. ARCHITECTURE: The lung parenchyma is mainly comprised of numerous air-containing passages and intervening fine structures, corresponding to alveolar ductal lumens and alveoli, as well as alveolar septa and small pulmonary vessels occupying 10% of total parenchymal volume. The primary function of the lungs is gas exchange. However, the lungs perform several important non-respiratory functions that are vital for normal physiology. The lung, with its unique ability to distend and recruit pulmonary vasculature, acts as a reservoir of blood, fine-tuning preload to the left heart to optimize cardiac output. * The lung acts as a filter against endogenous and exogenous emboli, preventing them from accessing systemic circulation. * Pulmonary epithelium forms the first line of defense against inhaled particles. * Pulmonary endothelial cells are responsible for the uptake, metabolism, and biotransformation of several exogenous and endogenous substances. * Pulmonary metabolic capacity is easily saturated, but pulmonary endothelial binding of some drugs alters their pharmacokinetics. GAS EXCHANGE MECHANISMS: Air enters the body through the mouth or nose and quickly moves to the pharynx or throat. From there, it passes through the larynx, or voice box, and enters the trachea. The trachea is a strong tube that contains rings of cartilage that prevent it from collapsing. Within the lungs, the trachea branches into a left and right bronchus. These further divide into smaller and smaller branches called bronchioles. The smallest bronchioles end in tiny air sacs. These are called alveoli. They inflate when a person inhales and deflate when a person exhales. During gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time, carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs. This happens in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.  Spirome try Spirometry uses a machine called a spirometer. A spirometer is a medical device that consists of a mouthpiece and a tube. They connect to a machine that measures your airflow. It is the most common of the pulmonary function tests. It measures lung function, specifically the amount and/or speed of air that can be inhaled and exhaled And used to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect breathing. Requirements of an acceptable spirometer are :Spirometers must be able to accumulate volume for ≥15 s. The measuring volume should be ≥8 L (body temperature and pressure, saturated). The accuracy of reading should be at least ±3% (or ±0.05 L) with flows from 0–14 L per s. The total resistance to airflow at 14 L per s should be