Life-span.pdf

Life-span Development What is life-span perspective ? Unlike the traditional approach which emphasizes the study of development on extensive change from birth to adolescence (especially during infancy) Lifespan perspective emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood Dev...

Life-span Development What is life-span perspective ? Unlike the traditional approach which emphasizes the study of development on extensive change from birth to adolescence (especially during infancy) Lifespan perspective emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood Development is lifelong Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development No age period should dominate development Researchers increasingly study the experiences and psychological orientations of adults at different point in their lives ** Development is multi dimensional Biological processes: changes in an individual’s physical nature. Cognitive processes: changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language. Socioemotional processes: changes in an individual’s relationships, emotions, and personality. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop ○ Bidirectional (e.g., Biological process influence cognitive process and vice versa) e.g., a baby smiling in response to a parent’s touch Biological: physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it Cognitive: ability to understand the intentional acts Socioemotional: smile reflect a positive emotional feeling and helps to connect us in positive ways with other human beings ** Development is multidirectional Through the lifespan, some dimensions or components expand while others shrink ○ E.g., language development in childhood, establish romantic relationship in adolescence ○ E.g., older might become wiser in their decision making or better in emotional regulation but they also perform poorly on tasks that require speed in processing information Development is plastic Plasticity means the capacity for change ○ E.g., intellectual skills are still improving at your 17s/18s, but how about at your 30s? Prior findings showed the cognitive skills of older adults can still be improved through training and acquisition of effective strategies (e.g., Calero, 2019; Dorrenbacher et al, 2020) ** Development is contextual All development occurs within a context. ○ The contexts can be families, schools, peer group, churches, university... etc. Each of these contexts are also influence by historical, economic, social and cultural factors ○ Changing context –> Changing individuals Normative age-graded influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group. ○ For example, starting school, puberty, menopause. ○ Sociocultural factors, e.g., when to enter school, when to retire Normative history-graded influences have common generational experiences due to historical events. ○ In the 1930s, the Great Depression; ○ In the 1960s to 1970s, the civil rights and women’s rights movements ○ In 2001, the attacks on 9/11, digital era ○ Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major life impact. ○ They do not happen to everyone , when they do occur , they can influence people in different ways For example, early pregnancy, losing a parent as a child, winning the lottery Development involved growth, maintenance and regulation of loss Baltes and his colleague suggested the mastery of life often involve competition between three goals: growth, maintenance and loss regulation ○ Especially for those who enter into middle and late adulthood Development is a co-construction of biology, culture and the individual Brain shapes cultures → BUT! It is also shaped by culture The experience that individuals have or pursue 1. 2. 3. 4. What are the contemporary concerns of lifespan developmental psychology ? Health and well-being a. Lifestyles and psychological states have powerful influences on health and well-being. i. For example, there is a positive connection between exercise and cognitive development. b. Beer drinking during pregnancy, poor diet affect cognitive development Parents and Education a. Effect of divorce, parenting style, child maltreatment, intergenerational relationship b. Early childhood education c. Links between childhood poverty and education Sociocultural contexts and diversity a. Health, parenting and education are shaped by sociocultural context b. Culture: shared language, knowledge, behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group passed on from generation to generation. i. Ethnocentrism（民族主義） : This belief that our own culture is superior ii. Cultural relativity: appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture. c. Cross-cultural studies: comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures to gain information about their developmental similarities. d. Universal versus cultural-specific Ethnicity, SES, Gender a. Ethnicity: a characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language. b. Socioeconomic status: grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. i. Differences in the ability to control resources and to participate in society’s rewards produce unequal opportunities ii. Poorer children were much more likely to face early life stressors such a family problem, poor living quality, violence etc iii. 5. 6. 7. 8. BUT ! Poverty could also lead to positive developmental outcome such as resilience c. Gender: characteristics of people as males or females, social expectation, gender role i. E.g., Inadequate educational opportunities Social Policy Technology Life expectancy, the ageing population a. The rapid increase in life expectancy has negative implications for quality of life for older people. b. According to Carstensen (2015, 2016, 2019), “the increase in lifespan has happened so quickly that science, technology and social expectation have not kept pace.” negative implications for older adults’ life quality Other contemporary concerns a. The influence of the pandemic What are the periods of development Periods of development Dividing the lifespan into periods is a social construction Developmental period refers to a time frame in a person’s life characterized by certain features ○ Emerging adulthood: 18 to 25 years of age. ** Four ages ○ First age: childhood and adolescence. ○ Second age: prime adulthood, ages 20 to 59. ○ Third age: approximately 60 to 79 years of age. ○ Fourth age: approximately 80 years and older. ○ Development in one period is connected to development in another period. (Baltes, 2006) Conceptions of age 1. Chronological age: the number of years that have elapsed since birth. 2. Biological age: age in terms of biological health. 3. Psychological age: the individual’s adaptive capacities compared with people of the same chronological age (e.g., ability to control your emotion etc) 4. Social age: connectedness with others, the social roles people adopt, affected by the cultures (Botwinick, 1978) Three developmental patterns of ageing Normal ageing: psychological functioning peaking early middle age then start to decline Pathological ageing: individuals with “MORE THAN AVERAGE” decline as they age, can be due to mild cognitive impairment or chronic disease that impairs daily functioning. Successful ageing: individuals maintaining positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development longer in life. What are the controversial issues in life-span developmental psychology ? 1. Nature versus Nurture → Most commonly accepted conclusion: Interaction between nature and nurture a. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance. b. Nurture refers to its environmental experiences. 2. Stability versus Change a. The debate about the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change. i. Becomes an older version of the early self, with the same traits persisting through life? 3. Continuity versus Discontinuity a. Debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative(漸增的) change (continuity), or distinct stages (discontinuity) i. E.g, a tree grows versus transformation from caterpillar to butterfly 4. Active versus Passive Most developmentalists acknowledge that development is a combination of each of these views （Mid-Term）Research methods in lifespan developmental psychology Ways of data collection Observation Laboratory: a controlled setting where many of the complex factors of the “real world” are absent. Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in real-world settings, making no effort to manipulate or control the situation. Survey and interview Survey: a standard set of clear and unbiased questions used to obtain people’s reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic; sometimes referred to as a questionnaire Interview: individuals are directly asked to self-report Standardized test: a test administered and scored utilizing uniform procedures to compare performance across individuals. Case study: an in-depth look at a single individual (Nonnormative life events) ** Types of research 1. Descriptive research: a research method designed to a. observe and record behavior 􏰀Cannot draw conclusion of causation b. 􏰀Can inform hypothesis 2. ** Correlational research: determine the strength of the association between two or more events or characteristics. a. Correlation coefficient: ranges from −1.00 to +1.00. i. The higher the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the association between the two variables. ii. Cannot draw conclusion of causation 3. ** Experiment: a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant a. 􏰀Designed to study causality i. 􏰀The independent variable is a manipulated, influential, experimental factor that is a potential cause. ii. 􏰀The dependent variable is a factor that can change in response to changes in the independent variable. b. Involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups. 􏰀 i. A control group is a comparison group that serves as a baseline ii. Random assignment is an important principle in experimental research. 1. Assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance/randomly 4. Cross-sectional approach a. Compares individuals of different ages simultaneously b. Cannot draw casual effect c. Cohort effects: characteristics determined by a person’s time of birth, era, or generation (e.g., generation x, after 90s) contribute to the difference rather than the actual age. 5. Longitudinal approach Ethical consideration 1. Informed consent: participants must know what their participation will involve and must be able to withdraw at will. 2. Confidentiality: data must be kept confidential and, when possible, anonymous. 3. Debriefing: after the study, participants should be informed of its purpose and methods. 4. Deception: when necessary, deception may be used, but the psychologist must ensure it will not harm the participants and that the participants will be debriefed. 1. 2. 3. 4. LECTURE 2 – KEY THEORIES IN DEVELOPMENT, BIOLOGICAL BEGINNING Main perspective what are their contributions and shortcomings ? Explain the genetical principles and list some diseases from the chromosomal abnormalties Explain the idea about epigenetics Different perspective in studying life-span development 1. Psychoanalytic 2. Cognitive 3. Behavioral and social cognitive 4. Ecological 5. Eclectic 6. Evolutionary Psychoanalytic perspective Describe development as primarily unconscious and significantly influenced by emotion Emphasize early life experience (e.g., with parents/caregivers) Behavior is just the surface characteristic symbolic meaning of the behavior ** Psychoanalytic approach - Freud’s (1917) psychosexual development Freud proposed five stages of psychosexual development a. Oral Stage → Birth to 1.5 Years Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth b. Anal Stage → 1.5 to 3 Years Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus c. Phallic (陰莖圖像, Phal.lic ) Stage → 3 to 6 Years Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals(生殖器) d. Latency Stage → 6 Years to Puberty (青春期, Pu.ber.ty) Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills e. Genital Stage → Puberty Onward A time of sexual reawakening source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family Primary motivation of human nature is sexual in nature Adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality Under /over-satisfaction for the need of pleasure may lead to problems (e.g., fixed/locked at that stage of development) Much of the development learn how to fulfill the urge in a socially acceptable way Three hypothetical parts of the personality a. The id: guide newborn behavior, operates on the pleasure principle b. The ego: develops gradually in early life and operates under the reality principle c. The superego: develops later in childhood and includes the conscience **Psychoanalytic approach - Erik Erikson’s (1950,1968) psychosocial theory Eight stages of human development Stage Approximate Age Virtue Trust vs Mistrust Infant -12 to 18 months Hope → How trust the world Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt 12 to18 months - 3 years Will → Kids get opportunity try new things Initiative vs Guilt 3 - 6 years Purpose E.g Kids drawing on wall → pereant punish offspring/ tell them can draw on drawing book next time Industry vs Inferiority 6 years to Puberty Skill Eg. Education style help kids development Identity vs Identity Confusion Puberty to adulthood Fidelity (fi‧del‧i‧ty / 忠誠) (consistency) Intimacy vs Isolation Young Adulthood Love Generativity vs Stagnation (停滯) Middle Adulthood Care Integrity vs Despair Late Adulthood Wisdom Evaluating psychoanalytic theories Contributions ○ suggest a developmental framework ○ the role of relationships (e.g., family) and unconscious aspects of the mind. Criticisms of psychoanalytic theories ○ Lack of scientific support ○ Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings (i.e., Freud) Cognitive perspective Cognitive perspective - Piaget’s (1954) Organization creation of categories or systems of knowledge → Discrimilization Schemes organized patterns of thought and behavior used in particular situations. E.g How do you know CAT is a cat? Adaptation adjustment to new information about the environment, achieved through processes of assimilation and accommodation. Eg. When you see dog, if you tell cat and you will be corrected to get new information Assimilation incorporation of new information into an existing cognitive structure. Later on you see another CAT/ DOG, you can recognize them Accommodation changes in a cognitive structure to include new information. Equilibration the tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements; achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation Cognitive perspective - Piaget’s (1954) cognitive developmental theory Stage Approximate Age Development Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 years Organizing activities in relation to the environment through sensory and motor activity Preoperational Staage 2 to 7 years of age The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action. Concrete Operational Stage 7 to 11 years The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. Formal Operational Stage 11 years of age through Adulthood The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. Cognitive theories Vygotsky’s (1962) sociocultural cognitive theory 1. Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development 2. Zone of proximal development: difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help. 3. Scaffolding: temporary support to help a child master a task/skill Cognitive perspective - Information-processing theory 1. individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize 2. Rather than a single theory, this is more like a framework 3. There are certain inputs and outputs 4. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking 5. Use observational data to infer what goes on between a stimulus and a response Evaluating cognitive perspective Contributions ○ A positive view of development ○ An emphasis on the active construction of understanding Criticisms of cognitive theories ○ Skepticism about the Piaget’s theory (e.g., may underestimate children’s ability) ○ Inadequate attention to individual differences Behavior and social cognitive perspective Can be called as the learning perspective as well Throughout lifespan 1. Skinner’s operant conditioning a. Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes brought about by reinforcement (behavior is strengthened) and punishments (behaviors is weakened) 2. Classical conditioning a. Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response (e.g., Ivan Pavlov’s experiment , dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell that rang at feeding time) 3. Bandura’s social cognitive theory/social learning theory: a. Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. b. Reciprocal determinism: bidirectional forces that affect development (The person acts on the world as the world acts on the person) i. e.g Your parent is cheerful person, you become cheerful. c. Observational learning/modelling: learning through watching the behaviors of others i. Bobo doll experiment d. Cognitive processes are at work as people observe models, learn chunks of behavior, and mentally put the chunks together into complex new behavior patterns e. Through feedback, children gradually form standards and become more selective in choosing models f. Develop a sense of self-efficacy through the process , capability to master challenges and achieve goals Evaluating behavioral and social cognitive theories ○ Contributions emphasis on scientific research and environmental as determinants of behavior ○ Criticisms Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s theory Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes IQ Changes Ecological perspective – ***Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory Development reflects the influence of five environmental systems. ○ Microsystem: setting in which the individual lives and helps to construct. ○ Mesosystem: the relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. ○ Exosystem: links between a social setting in which the individual has a passive role and their immediate context. ○ Macrosystem: the culture in which individuals live. ○ Chronosystem: the patterning the environmental events and transitions over the life course. Evaluating ecological theory Contributions ○ The systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems. ○ Attention to connections between environmental systems. ○ An emphasis on a range of social contexts besides family that influence a child’s development Criticisms ○ Inadequate attention to biological factors ○ Too little emphasis on cognitive factors Eclectic perspective Eclectic theoretical orientation Does not follow any one theoretical approach. Selects from each theory whatever is considered its best features. Allows for seeing the study of development as it actually exists. ○ E.g., different theorists making different assumptions, stressing different empirical problems, and discovering information using different strategies. The Evolutionary Perspective ** Natural selection and adaptive behavior Natural selection: an evolutionary process by which individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and leave the most fit offspring Adaptive behavior: behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat, because an organism possesses characteristics needed for survival. Evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology: emphasizes the importance of adaptation and reproduction to ensure survival. ○ Offspring that adapts, develops behaviors, and possesses self-protective traits survive Evolutionary developmental psychology: ○ Interest has grown in using the concepts of evolutionary psychology to understand human development ○ E.g., lactose intolerance (乳糖不耐症) , skill to search for food Evaluating evolutionary perspective Contribution ○ An alternative bidirectional view suggests environmental and biological conditions influence each other. ○ People have used their biological capacities to produce diverse cultures Criticisms ○ Does not adequately value social/environmental factors ○ Cannot be tested scientifically Biological beginning- Genetic principle Genetic principles Genetic principles determine how a genotype is expressed to create a particular phenotype **Dominant-recessive(隱性的) genes principle: One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overriding the potential influence of the other gene. Sex-linked genes When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance. Most X-linked inherited diseases manifest in males, who have only one X chromosome. Polygenic inheritance Many different genes interacting, together with environmental influences, determine a characteristic or developing disease. Chromosomal abnormalities ** （Remeber Results !!） Down Syndrome: a form of an intellectual disability caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21. ○ Can cause intellectual and physical issues. ○ Chromosomal abnormalities known as sex-linked involve the presence of an extra X or Y chromosome or the absence of one X chromosome in females. Klinefelter syndrome: a sex-linked chromosomal disorder in which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY instead of XY. ○ Characteristics are underdeveloped testes(睪丸) , enlarged breasts, and becoming tall. Fragile X syndrome (F X S): a sex-linked disorder involving an abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks. ○ Can cause intellectual disability, learning disability, or short attention span. Turner syndrome: a sex-linked disorder in females in which either an X chromosome is missing or the second X chromosome is partially deleted. ○ Can cause intellectual disability and sexual underdevelopment. XYY syndrome: a sex-linked disorder in which males have an extra Y chromosome. ○ Can cause above-average height. Heredity-Environment Interaction Behavioral genetics Behavior genetics: the field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits, development, and behavior. Twin study: the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins. Adoption study: seeks to discover whether behavioral and psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like those of their adoptive parents or biological parents. ○ Adoptive parents provided the home environment ○ Biological parents contributed their heredity Heredity-Environment Correlations 1. Passive genotype-environment correlations a. occur because biological parents provide a rearing environment for the child 2. Evocative genotype-environment correlations a. occur because a child’s genetically-influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments 3. Active genotype-environment correlations a. occur when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating and suited for their genetically influenced abilities The Epigenetic View Development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment Gene × environment (G × E) interaction: the interaction of a specific measured variation in the D N A and a specific measured aspect of the environment. The epigenetic mechanisms involve the actual molecular modification of the DNA strand as a result of environmental inputs in ways that alter gene functioning LECTURE 3- PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 1. Identify the main stages in prenatal development 2. What are the three trimesters ? What are the developmental milestones in each of them? 3. Identify the risk factors in birth defects ? 4. What are the important issues at birth ? 5. What are the potential adjustments in postpartum period ? Prenatal development ** Gestation ○ Period of development between conception (受精) and birth Gestational age ○ Age of an unborn baby ○ How far a long the pregnancy is ? ** Geminal period —> first 2 weeks after conception Occur during the first trimester ○ Continued cell division ○ Formation of zygote and implantation in the wall of the uterus ○ Formation of blastocyst and trophoblast Blastocyst : the inner layer of cells that develops into the embryo. Trophoblast: the outer layer of cells that provides nutrition and support for the embryo ** Embryonic period 2 to 8 weeks after conception ○ Occur during the first trimester ○ Cell division intensifies ○ Development of major body systems and organs ○ Support the formation of embryo Most vulnerable to destructive influences in the prenatal environment ○ It is the natural process as a protection if the embryo is unhealthy Spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) ○ Naturally expulse the embryo that cannot survive outside the body Formation of amnion, umbilical cord and placenta. Organogenesis ○ Rapid growth and organ formation that takes place during the first 2 months of prenatal development ○ Support the respiratory, digestive and nervous system The Fetal period (Not more important) Lasts about seven months Between 2 months after conception and birth ○ End of the first trimester to the third trimester “Finishing touches” continue to develop (e.g., fingernails, toenails, eyelids) Fetal movement can be observed through ultrasound Develop the ability to taste, smell, hear and feel Near the end of the pregnancy, they even learn and remember ** Three trimesters of prenatal development The first trimester ○ Conception to 4 weeks Is less than 1/10 inch long. ** Beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, and lungs. Amniotic sac envelops the preliminary tissues of entire body. Is called a "zygote” ○ At 8 weeks Just over 1 inch long Face is forming with rudimentary (初步) eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds Arms and legs can move now Forming the brain Fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound. Is called an "embryo” ○ At 12 weeks Is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes Fingerprints are present Milestone in this period Can smile, frown, suck, and swallow Sex can be identified Can urinate Is called a “fetus” The second trimester ○ At 16 weeks Is about 6 inches long and weighs about 4 to 7 ounces Heartbeat is strong Skin is thin, transparent Downy hair (lanugo) covers body Fingernails and toenails are forming Has coordinated movements (e.g., rolling over in amniotic fluid) ○ At 20 weeks Is about 12 inches long and weighs close to 1 pound. Heartbeat is audible Sucks thumb, Hiccups (Oral Stage) Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present ○ At 24 weeks Is about 14 inches long an weighs 1 to 1.5 pounds Skin is wrinkled and covered with protective coating (vernix caseosa) Not same as Lanugo Eyes are open Waste matter is collected in bowel Has strong grip The third trimester ○ At 28 weeks Is about 16 inches long and weighs about 3 pounds Adding body fat. Becoming active Rudimentary breathing movements are present. ○ At 32 weeks Is 16.5 to 18 inches long and weighs 4 to 5 pounds Has periods of sleep and wakefulness Responds to sounds (music) May assume the birth position Bones of head are soft and flexible ○ At 36 to 38 weeks Is 19 to 20 inches long and weighs 6 to 7.5 pounds Skin is less wrinkled Vernix caseosa (the protective layer) is thick Lanugo is mostly gone Less active Gaining immunities from mother. ** Brain development —> Born with 20 to 100 billion neurons (神經元) Neural tube develops at about 18 to 24 days after conception Neurogenesis ○ Massive proliferation of new immature neurons, beginning at about week 5 till birth Neuronal migration ○ The process of cells moving outward from their point of origin to their appropriate locations takes place between 6 and 24 weeks Neural connectivity Connections between neurons begin to occur, at about the 23rd week ***Risk factors to prenatal development Teratogen: any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral developmental outcomes Severity of damage and type of defect depend on: ○ Dose (eg. 1 drink vs 3 drinks) ○ Genetic susceptibility ○ Time of exposure Negative effects of exposure during the fetal period include Stunted growth (發育不良) Fetal brain development problems Organ functioning problems Supplementary Literature (read conclusion): Genetic Susceptibility to Drug Teratogenicity: A Systematic Literature Review Drugs (Depend on Genetic differences) ○ Prescription drugs Antibiotics Some antidepressants Certain hormones, such as progestin and synthetic estrogen Accutane, an acne medication ○ Psychoactive drugs (act on nervous system) e.g., caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, marijuana, and heroin Caffeine ○ Lower birth weight ○ Babies being born smaller in amount compare with other in the same gestational age. Alcohol (More severity issues) ○ Facial deformities, limb and heart defects, learning problems etc. ○ Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (F A S D) (MC) Other psychoactive drugs Nicotine (cigarette smoking) ○ Low birth weight, ADHD, impaired newborn brain development Cocaine ○ Neurological, medical, and cognitive deficits Marijuana ○ Lower intelligence, low birth weight, and a greater likelihood of being in neonatal intensive care unit Heroin ○ Several behavioral difficulties at birth *Environmental risk factors ○ Radiation, toxic wastes, and other chemical pollutants E.g., X-ray radiation can affect the developing embryo or fetus e.g., growth restriction, malformations, impaired brain function, and cancer ○ Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes can cross the placenta (胎盤) from mother to offspring *Maternal factors ○ Maternal diseases such as rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, HIV/AIDS, diabetes ○ Age (adolescent / aged 35 years old or above) ○ Diet and nutrition ○ Obesity ○ Psychological stress **Paternal factors ○ Sperm abnormalities from lead or radiation exposure miscarriage or diseases ○ Age (e.g., associate with developmental disorder when fathers is 40 years old or above) Smoking during the mother’s pregnancy (e.g., second-hand smoking) Insufficient emotional support to their wives ○ Prenatal care Educational program (e.g social, and nutritional services) Exercise during pregnancy Regulate blood pressure, reduces risk of hypertension, conditions the body, controls weight gain More positive mental state Reduced levels of stress and depression Positive benefits for offspring (e.g., brain development) Birth Methods of childbirth a. *Natural childbirth Vaginal delivery b. *Cesarean(Ce.sar.e.an) delivery surgically removing the baby from the mother’s uterus through an abdominal incision Adopted in cases of breech position (baby position), fetal distress, maternal vaginal bleeding, natural birth hindered by an epidural (pain relief) *Low on Apgar scale → 全世界最普遍使用的新生嬰兒健康評估 A method for assessing the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth ○ Heart rate ○ Respiratory effort ○ Muscle tone (e.g., motion) ○ Body color (e.g, body pink) ○ Reflex irritability (e.g., coughing, crying, sneezing) **Low Apgar scores are associated with long-term educational support, ADHD, and developmental risks Issue of weight at birth ** Low birth weight (less than 5 pounds 8 ounces) ○ Very low birth weight: less than 3 pounds 4 ounces ○ Extremely low birth weight: less than 2 pounds 3 ounces Preterm infants (早產) ○ Born before the full term is completed—35 or fewer weeks after conception. Small for gestational (妊娠期) age infants ○ Infants with birth weights below normal considering the length of pregnancy May be full term or preterm ** higher risk for mother whose body is not fully mature → Young Mother ○ ** May associate with health problems and developmental delays but most such infants are healthy *Nurturing low birth weight and preterm infants **Kangaroo care ○ Skin-to-skin contact with the baby upright against the parent’s bare chest ○ Better respiratory and cardiovascular functioning, sleep patterns, and cognitive functioning from ages 6 months to 10 years ○ Positive emotional and cognitive effects are still present after 20 years Massage therapy ○ increased infant weight, reduced stress, and a reduced hospital stay The postpartum (產後) period Adjustment in postpartum period ○ Physical Fatigue 疲憊 (Fa.tigue) → reduced psychological wellbeing Loss of sleep contributes to stress, marital (婚姻的) conflict, and impaired decision making. Hormonal changes → Not same as postpartum depression Estrogen and progesterone levels dropping steeply ○ Emotional & Psychological ** Postpartum depression Experienced by women that have trouble coping with daily tasks during the postpartum period Feelings peak 3 to 5 days after giving birth and may come and go for several months Risk factors include depression and anxiety during pregnancy, low self-esteem, postpartum blues, poor marital relationship, lack of social support, and history of depression Can have a long-term impact on the child’s emotions and behaviors Negatively impacts infant bonding (esp. when both parents are in depression) ○ Special care → How can we help the Moms? Rooming-in arrangement The baby remains in the mother’s room most of the time during its hospital stay Bonding formation of a connection Especially a physical bond between parents and their newborn shortly after birth OCD Apply the mutidimesion Social: Screen time and OCD → adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Screen time vs additional hour of playing video game ○ Perfectionism ○ Overestimation of threat ○ Children brain → Crave for stimulation → addiction/ overstimulation ○ Be worries about Inhibitory (抑制性的) learning Negative impact of daily screen use on inhibitory control Biological: A loop of “wrongness” for OCD brain The brain responds too much too little to stop signals