Developmental Psychology PDF - PCU B.Sc. 1st Year (2023)

Developmental PSYCHOLOGY PCU B.Sc. 1st Year (2023) Tanvi Auradkar Practicing Psychologist Founding Partner Carpediem EdPsych Consultancy LLP  Syllabus Units Unit Titles 1...

Developmental PSYCHOLOGY PCU B.Sc. 1st Year (2023) Tanvi Auradkar Practicing Psychologist Founding Partner Carpediem EdPsych Consultancy LLP  Syllabus Units Unit Titles 1 Life-Span Development 2 Theories of Human Development 3 Prenatal. Perinatal, Antenatal & Postnatal Development 4 Language, Physical, Motor & Psychosocial and moral Development 5 Development across the life-span  Course Objectives & Outcome Course Objectives: The objective of Developmental Psychology are : To familiarize the students with the basics and fundamentals of Human Development To understand the Human Development accross the age span Course Outcomes: Students would be able to understand and apply: Importance of psychology in human development Learn the stages involved in human development across the age span Understand and apply theories of human development from psychological, phycical, motor language and perceptual perspectives Co relate between the theories and the issues of human development  Unit 4 Cognitive, Language, Motor , Psychosocial and Moral Development  Cognitive Development 1. Vygotsky socio cultural perspective A. Piaget vs vygotsky B. The social origin of cognitive development C. Vygotsky approach to make a believe play D. Vygotsky and education - reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning 2. Information processing perspective of cognitive development A. General models - Atkinson shiffrin model and levels of processing approach B. Developmental models - Case's M - space and Fisher's skill theory  Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist and teacher who developed a theory about how our social interactions influence our cognitive development. This is known as Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development. Vygotsky developed his theories around the same time as Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was developing theories about cognitive development, but they differ on almost every point. Some of Vygotsky's work is still being translated from Russian.  Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934, 1978) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades, particularly what has become known as sociocultural theory. Vygotsky’s theory comprises concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky believed cognitive development is influenced by cultural and social factors. He emphasized the role of social interaction in the development of mental abilities e.g., speech and reasoning in children. Vygotsky strongly believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.” Cognitive development is a socially mediated process in which children acquire cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective  Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective More Knowledgeable Other The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, concerning a particular task, process, or concept. Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is not necessarily the case. Often, a child’s peers or an adult’s children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience. For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform the newest dance craze – a child or their parents? In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. To support employees in their learning process, some companies are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and guide students through learning. The key to MKOs is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner does.  Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective Zone Of Proximal Development The concept of the more knowledgeable other relates to the second important principle of Vygotsky’s work, the zone of proximal development. This important concept relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Vygotsky consequently focuses much more closely on social interaction as an aid to learning, arguing that, left alone, children will develop – but not to their full potential. He refers to the gap between actual and potential learning as the zone of proximal development (ZPD) – and argues that it is only through collaboration with adults and other learners that this gap can be bridged.  Vygotsky socio-cultural perspective Zone Of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development Stages The ZPD can be broken down into three distinct stages in terms of a learner's skillset. In order to improve the ability of the learner the more knowledgeable person must understand what stage they are in. Tasks a learner can accomplish without assistance This refers to tasks that the learner can perform independently. If the learner has reached this stage, the teacher or mentor will need to increase the level of difficulty of the task in order to facilitate further learning. Tasks a learner can accomplish with assistance This is referred to as their zone of proximal development. In this stage, the learner needs the guidance of a more knowledgeable other to help them complete the task. Tasks a learner cannot accomplish with assistance This refers to tasks that the learner cannot do, even with the guidance of a more knowledgeable person. If the learner's ability falls within this range, the level of difficulty may need to be decreased to accommodate their skillset.  Vygotsky and Instructional Scaffolding Instructional scaffolding is a method of guided learning that helps a student learn by pairing them with an educator. The educator should have greater experience with the task or process than the student, but they should also have an understanding of the level that the student is at and how they can address this level. Techniques for instructional scaffolding might include using visual aids (such as diagrams), providing examples, working one-on-one with the student and providing feedback. The aim of scaffolding is to create an environment in which the student feels comfortable asking questions until they can perform the skill without any help. The benefits of scaffolding include: Motivating the learner by helping them through aspects of a task that they have trouble with Minimising frustration for the learner Providing a faster learning experience  Elementary Mental Functions Vygotsky's child development theory refers to four 'elementary mental functions' as the innate abilities that we are born with. These are: Attention Sensation Perception Memory These abilities are then developed into 'higher mental functions' through social interaction with our community. Vygotsky also coined the term 'tools of intellectual adaptation', which refers to problem-solving strategies and ways of thinking that children internalise by observing and interacting with more knowledgeable members of society. Different cultures exemplify different tools of intellectual adaptation because they are affected by the beliefs and values of the individual culture.  Vygotsky V.s. Piaget The way that culture affects cognitive development Vygotsky placed importance on the way culture affected cognitive growth and did not refer to specific stages of cognitive development. In contrast, Piaget described universal stages of cognitive development that did not vary across cultures. Piaget's theory declared that children would have to reach each stage before being capable of certain tasks and that each stage would have to be reached in the same order.  Vygotsky V.s. Piaget Learning as a social process Vygotsky's theory on children's cognitive development centres around learning being an inherently social process. He places emphasis on social interaction as a defining element of learning and says it cannot be removed from its social context. Vygotsky expands on this by highlighting the benefits of pairing a student with a more knowledgeable other for the purpose of guided learning. Vygotsky stated that a child's immediate environment would have a significant impact on their development. However, Piaget theorized that learning is mostly an independent process in which the individual undertakes their own journey of exploration. He didn't do as much research or observation on the role that social interaction played in cognitive development.  Vygotsky V.s. Piaget The role of language When it comes to the role of language in development, Vygotsky and Piaget have very different theories. Vygotsky states that thought and language both begin early on in development but that they are initially separate functions that merge when the child begins to use inner speech. This usually happens around 3 years of age. He goes on to say that the internalisation of language is a necessary step for cognitive development. In contrast, Piaget says that thought comes first and language develops as a result of this. Vygotsky also highlighted the significance of the stage in between external speech and inner speech - private speech. Piaget's theory did not place much importance on this stage and instead suggested that it was a sign of immaturity.  Vygotsky V.s. Piaget Adult guidance Vygotsky highlights the importance of adults playing a role in a child's cognitive development. He emphasises this through his model of the zone of proximal development, which can be used by parents, teachers, caregivers and tutors to structure and accelerate a child's learning. On the other hand, Piaget's theory of cognitive development highlights the role of peers in providing perspective and improving a child's social awareness and negotiation skills.  Social Influences and Cognitive Development Vygotsky believed that learning was an active process rather than a natural or passive one. He said that children were engaged in their own learning and discovery but that their development happened in the context of social interaction, as opposed to independently or in isolation. Vygotsky also highlighted the importance of learning that was guided by an educator or teacher. Techniques used by the teacher to engage the child, such as performing the task themselves. The process of learning would occur when the child understood the information, absorbed it and then used it to guide their own performance. An example of this guided learning could be if a child is given a sudoku puzzle to complete. A teacher or mentor might recommend certain strategies to the child, such as ruling out places where each number could go based on the horizontal and vertical positions of that number, or writing possible options in the corner of the box in pencil to cull the possibilities. The teacher might also encourage the child to ask questions and provide prompts when they are close to the right answer. As the child develops a higher level of competency, the teacher reduces their influence.  Vygotsky and education - reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning Vygotsky's sociocultural theory about child development says that cognitive development occurs as a result of social interactions. In this way, learning is innately collaborative. He believed social negotiation was essential for building knowledge and understanding concepts. Vygotsky proposed that it was not possible to separate learning in the formative years from its social context. Initial learning occurred through social interaction and then the individual processed it internally. Contemporary modes of applying this theory to the classroom mark a movement away from traditional memory-oriented models of teaching. 'Reciprocal teaching' refers to a method in which teachers and students work together to clarify and understand a concept before students are asked to repeat it or apply it in another context. For example, if a teacher is reading a paragraph of text on a certain topic, they will go through a process together with the students of: Summarising Questioning Clarifying; and Predicting This collaborative process allows the students to learn the concept in a social context before internalising it to apply on their own.  Vygotsky's Theory and Language Vygotsky viewed language as an essential tool for communication and that culture and behaviour was understood through language. Vygotsky also highlighted the critical role that language plays in cognitive development. Vygotsky's theory says that social interactions help children develop their ability to use language. According to Vygotsky, there are three stages/forms of language in the development process: Social speech - communication between children and others (usually from the age of 2) Private speech - private speech that is directed to the self but has not yet been internalised (usually from the age of 3) Silent inner speech - a child's internal monologue (usually from the age of 7)  2. Information processing perspective of cognitive development Origins of Information Processing Theory During the first half of the twentieth century, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism. Behaviorists only studied behaviors that could be directly observed. This made the inner-workings of the mind seem like an unknowable “black box.” Around the 1950s, however, computers came into existence, giving psychologists a metaphor to explain how the human mind functioned. The metaphor helped psychologists explain the different processes the brain engages in, including attention and perception, which could be compared to inputting information into a computer, and memory, which could be compared to a computer’s storage space. This was referred to as the information processing approach and is still fundamental to cognitive psychology today. Information processing is especially interested in how people select, store and retrieve memories. In 1956, psychologist George A. Miller developed the theory and also contributed the idea that one can only hold a limited number of pieces of information in short-term memory. Miller specified this number as seven plus or minus two (or five to nine chunks of information), but more recently other scholars have suggested the number may be smaller. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Stage Theory In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the stage theory model. The model was later modified by other researchers but the basic outline of stage theory continues to be a cornerstone of information processing theory. The model concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of three stages, as follows: Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory/Working Memory Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory — Sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar. Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short-term memory, which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes. As observed by Miller, working memory’s capacity is limited so it can only process a certain number of pieces of information at a time. How many pieces is not agreed on, although many still point to Miller to identify the number as five to nine. There are several factors that will impact what and how much information will be processed in working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from person to person and from moment to moment based on an individual’s cognitive abilities, the amount of information being processed, and one's ability to focus and pay attention. Also, information that is familiar and has often been repeated doesn’t require as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be easier to process. For example, riding a bike or driving a car take minimal cognitive load if you’ve performed these tasks numerous times. Finally, people will pay more attention to information they believe is important, so that information is more likely to be processed. For example, if a student is preparing for a test, they are more likely to attend to information that will be on the test and forget about information they don’t believe they will be asked about. Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of long-term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are encoded and organized in long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that can be discussed such as facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to do something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are mental pictures.  Craik and Lockhart’s Level of Processing Model Although Atkinson and Shiffrin’s stage theory is still highly influential and is the basic outline on which many later models are built, its sequential nature over-simplified how memories are stored. As a result, additional models were created to expand upon it. The first of these was created by Craik and Lockhart in 1973. Their levels of processing theory states that the ability to access information in long-term memory will be affected by how much it was elaborated upon. Elaboration is the process of making information meaningful so it is more likely to be remembered. People process information with different levels of elaboration that will make the information more or less likely to be retrieved later. Craik and Lockhart specified a continuum of elaboration that starts with perception, continues through attention and labeling, and ends at meaning. Regardless of the level of elaboration, all information is likely to be stored in long-term memory, but higher levels of elaboration make it more likely that the information will be able to be retrieved. In other words, we can recall far less information that we’ve actually stored in long-term memory. Parallel-Distributed Processing Model and Connectionist Model The parallel-distributed processing model and connectionist model contrast to the linear three-step process specified by the stage theory. The parallel-distributed processing model was a precursor to connectionism that proposed that information is processed by multiple parts of the memory system at the same time. This was extended by Rumelhart and McClelland’s connectionist model in 1986, which said that information is stored in various locations throughout the brain that is connected through a network. Information that has more connections will be easier for an individual to retrieve.  General models of Cognitive development Limitations While the information processing theory’s use of a computer as a metaphor for the human mind has proven to be potent, it’s also limited. Computers aren’t influenced by things like emotions or motivations in their ability to learn and remember information, but these things can have a powerful impact on people. In addition, while computers tend to process things sequentially, evidence shows humans are capable of parallel processing.  Key Takeaways of IPM Information processing theory is a cornerstone of cognitive psychology that uses computers as a metaphor for the way the human mind works. It was initially proposed in the mid-50s by American psychologists including George Miller to explain how people process information into memory. The most important theory in information processing is the stage theory originated by Atkinson and Shiffrin, which specifies a sequence of three stages information goes through to become encoded into long-term memory: sensory memory, short-term or working memory, and long-term memory.