Lecture 4: Clause Constituents & Elements - Verb Complementation Patterns PDF

4. Clause constituents and clause elements. Objects, complements and adverbials. Verb complementation patterns Summary This lecture provides a detailed analysis of the other clause elements, besides the S and the V discussed previously, focusing on the types of functi...

4. Clause constituents and clause elements. Objects, complements and adverbials. Verb complementation patterns Summary This lecture provides a detailed analysis of the other clause elements, besides the S and the V discussed previously, focusing on the types of functions in the English clause. The direct object is the clause element that follows the main verb and can correspond to the subject in a passive sentence. It directly receives the action of the verb. The indirect object refers to a person or entity that benefits from or is indirectly affected by the action. In English, the indirect object can often be paraphrased with PpPs like to or for (e.g., I gave her the book vs. I gave the book to her). Object complements are needed to complete the meaning of the O, describing what the O refers to. They typically occur with complex transitive verbs. Subject complements usually follow linking verbs like be and provide more information about the subject, often identifying or describing it. They can be noun phrases or adjective phrases (e.g., She is a teacher or She is happy). Adverbials add extra information about the event or state described by the verb. They can express time, place, manner, and other circumstances. Some adverbials are necessary to complete the verb’s meaning (adverbial complements), while others are optional. The subsection Verb Complementation and Clause Patterns discusses verb complementation in relation to valency, which refers to the number of elements a verb requires to form a complete sentence. English verbs can have varying valencies: one-place verbs only need a subject (e.g., She smiled), two-place verbs need a subject and one other element, such as an O, C, or A (e.g., She reads books or She is happy) and three-place verbs require a S and two other elements (e.g., He gave her a book). Goals The goals of the chapter are to: approach the notion of clause functions and explain the difference between tthem show that verbs can exhibit a different behavior in various clause patterns appeal to formal, functional and semantic criteria to define the indirect object, the object complement, the subject complement, the adverbial and the adverbial complement consider classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of indirect object, object complement, subject complement, adverbial and adverbial complement touch briefly on verb complementation and clause patterns explain the notion of verb valency and distinguish between one-place verbs, two-place verbs and three-place verbs Chapter contents 4.1. The Direct Object 4.1.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of direct object 4.1.2. The meanings of the direct object 4.2. The Indirect Object  4.2.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of indirect object 4.2.2. The meanings of the indirect object 4.2.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects 4.3. The prepositional/oblique object 4.4. The Object Complement 4.4.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of object complement 4.4.2. The meanings of the object complement 4.5. The Subject Complement 4.5.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of subject complement 4.5.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement 4.5.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement 4.5.4. Object complement vs. subject complement 4.6. The Adverbial 4.6.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of adverbial 4.6.2. The Adverbial Complement 4.7. Verb complementation and clause patterns 4.7.1. Verb complementation 4.7.2. Clause patterns Further reading and video resources Exercises Key terms monotransitive verbs, ditransitive verbs, complex-transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, copular verbs, verb complementation, clause patterns, direct object, indirect object, prepositional object, subject complement, object complement, optional adverbial, obligatory adverbial, valency 4.1. The Direct Object The direct object is the element of the clause which normally follows the main verb, and corresponds to the subject of a passive clause. Compare: Jack (S) contacted a massage therapist (O). A massage therapist (S) was contacted by Jack. (The passive counterpart of the sentence above, where Jack becomes the expressed agent in a by-phrase functioning as Adverbial) The direct object can be found by asking the question >. For example, to identify the direct object in ”New Self, New World” explores the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains. (thesunmagazine.org), , we use the question. The direct object is thus the noun phrase the implications of the little-known fact that we have two brains, and explore is a transitive verb. The direct action of the verb on the direct object is not always obvious. Downing and Locke point to a small category of verbs that take untypical direct objects. They include verbs such as have (They have two cars), cost (It cost ten pounds), lack (She lacks confidence), resemble (She resembles her elder sister), fit (Do these shoes fit you?), suit (That color doesn’t suit me), weigh (The suitcase weighs twenty kilos), contain (That box contains explosives) and measure (It measures two metres by three). All these answer questions with What? Who? How much/how many?, as is usual with direct objects (2006, p. 51). There is a close similarity between the direct object in English and the Romanian complement direct, as well as between the indirect object and the complement indirect. Their functions are analogous in the two languages and similar steps are taken in the course of the grammatical analysis for identifying them. Nevertheless, you should note that, from a grammatical viewpoint, the terms complement (English) and complement (Romanian) are false friends. 4.1.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of direct object 1. a noun phrase or an embedded clause. As in the case of the subject, the NP can range from a pronoun or proper name (a) to longer and more complex NPs as in (b), or even to embedded clauses (c). a. I don’t understand it. b. Forest fires are threatening the world’s remaining population of orangutans. c. Have you read that new novel I lent you? 2. the semantically empty pronoun it, necessary as an ‘anticipatory direct object’ in SVOC structures in which the direct object is realized by a finite or non-finite clause. S V (dO) oC dO I find it strange that he refuses to come. She might consider it insulting for you to leave now. You must find It flattering having so many fans. 3. prepositional phrases of time or place can marginally realize direct object. I would prefer before noon for a meeting. Don’t choose by a swamp for a picnic. 4. finite clauses: nominal that-clauses1 and wh-clauses They fear that there may be no survivors. (nominal that-clause) No-one knows where he lives. (wh-clause) You can eat whatever you like. (wh-nominal clause) Both that-clauses and wh-clauses functioning as direct objects can sometimes become subject in a passive clause and then be extraposed: It is feared that there may be no survivors. (extraposed cl.) It is not known where he lives. (extraposed cl.) However, passivation is not a unique criterion for assigning object status. A more reliable test is the wh-cleft paraphrase. It can be applied to the following example, which rejects passivation but 1 that is often omitted in informal styles. fulfils the wh-cleft test: I wonder whether they know the truth. Whether they know the truth is wondered. What I wonder is whether they know the truth. 5. non-finite clauses: infinitive clauses with or without to and -ing clauses. Many Londoners prefer to travel by train. Many Londoners prefer travelling by train. Note that the non-finite clause can be replaced by a NP (prefer the train) or by it/that (prefer it). Also note that the non-finite clause can be made the focus of a wh-cleft sentence (What many Londoners prefer is to travel/ travelling by train). 4.1.2. The meanings of the direct object2 1. the affected role (the typical role of the dO) She waved her hand. 2. the resultant role (the dO may refer to something that is a result of the action) He’s written a novel. 3. the eventive role (the dO may refer to an event) The eventive object generally contains a noun derived from a verb. We were having a fight. (cf: We were fighting.) 4.2. The Indirect Object 4.2.1. Definition and properties A clause may have an indirect object in addition to a direct object. The indirect object (iO) refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person generally receives something or benefits from something. The following example can be used to illustrate that the indirect object will fill the function of the direct object if the latter is omitted, and that such an omission changes the meaning of the whole clause. In Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal, his girlfriend is the indirect object (representing the person who benefits from the action) and a meal is the direct object. If a meal is omitted, his girlfriend no longer benefits from the subject’s action and becomes the part that is directly affected, with Bob at the same time becoming a cannibal! Note that the indirect object realized by a prepositional phrase normally comes after the direct object; consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane my 2 The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 umbrella. (SViOdO) and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures differ to some extent in their use, because of the general tendency for the more important information to come at the end. For example, if Jane has already been mentioned, but not the umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than the second, though in speech the focus can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation pattern. Downing and Locke (2006, p. 56) identify the following realizations of the indirect object and illustrate them with examples: a. typically, NPs (see examples in the table above) b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional alternative: You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl) Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP) c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO. I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl) Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (PpP) 4.2.2. The meanings of the indirect object Greenbaum and Nelson identify the recipient role of the indirect object as the entity that is indirectly affected by the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive something, or benefiting in some way (2002, p. 36) Bob was cooking her a meal. Downing and Locke (2006, p. 55) distinguish between two different meanings (they call them semantic roles): recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), and beneficiary (‘intended recipient’) and argue that the differences between them are reflected in the syntax. The authors propose the following examples: Recipient Oi Beneficiary Oi She has lent me a few CDs. I’ll buy you a drink. The doctor gave the injured man oxygen. He got us the tickets. Sammy Karanja is teaching the students math She left him a note. Thus, in passive counterparts iO as recipient corresponds to the subject, while most beneficiary iOs do not easily become subject in a passive clause, although this restriction is not absolute. Recipient as Subject Beneficiary as Subject I have been lent a few CDs. You’ll be bought a drink. The injured man was given oxygen. We were got the tickets. The students are being taught maths by Sammy Karanja. He was left a note. With both its recipient and beneficiary roles, indirect objects have an optional prepositional paraphrase. For the recipient, the preposition is to, for the beneficiary it is for. 4.2.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing direct objects from indirect objects are:  An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them).  Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct object is present in the clause.  An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favor, or who beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject.  The direct object answers the question >. I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO).  The indirect object answers the question >.  I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect object).  If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense. o I told the children a story. o I baked my daughter a cake.  If you remove the indirect object, the sentence will make sense but will be less clear, as the recipient/beneficiary remains unknown. o I told the children a story. o I baked my daughter a cake. 4.3. The Object Complement 4.3.1. Definition and properties Etymologically, the term complement was attested during late 14c., and meant "that which completes," from Old French compliement "accomplishment, fulfilment", from Latin complementum "that which fills up or completes,"). Originally, it also had senses which were taken up c. 1650-1725 by compliment (www.etymonline.com). In linguistics, complement broadly means a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a certain structure. One type of complement is called object complement, defined by Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson3 as a syntactic function in the clause, occurring after a complex transitive verb and a direct object. The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it describes what the object refers to: At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org) 3 These authors, as well as others, call the object complement object predicative (Hasselgård, et al., n.d.). In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The object complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the verbal at the same time (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.). The relation between the object and the object complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is that ‘in her view, he was a quiet, gentle man’. The object complement can be realized by a noun phrase - as in the example above - or by an adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is that ‘her hair has become red as a result of dying.” The set of verbs which permit an object complement is not large and includes to keep, declare, leave, call, like, want, consider, find, think, get, make, send, turn, elect, appoint, vote. In order to make the recognition of this clause element easier for the Romanian speaker of English, I suggest a correlation between it and the element predicativ suplimentar (EPS), because they share a number of features. In both Romanian and English, the EPS and the oC can be quite easily taken for adverbials of manner, so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behavior. 4.3.2. The meanings of the object complement The meanings of the subject complement will be treated in the following section, together with the meanings of the subject complement. 4.4. The Subject Complement 4.4.1. Definition and properties The subject complement is the element of the clause which typically follows the verb be, and which consists either of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase: Jane was the new manager. She was very accomplished. This type of complement is called a subject complement, because it typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject. From the two examples above we find out who Jane is (the new manager) and how she is (very accomplished). Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson define the subject complement as the clause element that comes in addition to a subject and a link/copular (two-place) verb, normally placed after the verb and realized by a noun phrase and an adjective phrase (as shown above), or by a nominal subordinate clause, as in The problem is finding the right person (n.d.). Because the subject complement is primarily a complement, its basic function is to complete something. Similar to the oC’s behavior towards the object, the sC completes a reference or an implication related to the subject. It both shares some of the features of the oC and has properties unique to itself. The behavior of the Romanian counterpart of the sC is very similar with the features listed above, with the observation that traditional approaches include the nume predicativ in the structure of the predicat nominal. In both languages, the relation created in the clause by the linking verb is representable by the ‘=’ sign, and can be diagrammed as follows: Jane = the new manager. Jane = very accomplished. 4.4.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement4 The complement typically has the role of attribute5. It attributes an identification or characterization to the subject – if it is a subject complement (sC) – or to the direct object – if it is an object complement (oC): subject complement object complement Jane is my boss. They have made Jane my boss. The girls were happy. The news made the girls happy. 4.4.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement If a verbal requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the clause, then the verbal is realized by a linking/copular verb. The most common linking verb is be, but the category also includes appear, become, seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc. The linking verbs link the subject and the subject complement in a clause. Downing and Locke (2006, pp. 87-88) distinguish between a. verbs of being, b. verbs of becoming and c. other linking verbs. a. verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes: The reason is simple. Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic. We have to remain optimistic about the future. b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes: Her latest novel has become a best-seller. We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didn’t appear. His face went white. c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC: The child fell flat on its face. The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill. The label has come unstuck. d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the 4 The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 5 Note that the meaning of the term attribute in English grammar is different from the meaning of atribut in Romanian. subject and the subject complement, according to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson, as in She is called Susan. and She has been voted 'woman of the year'. As be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP) but also to a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement, underlined in the example, is then identified as adverbial complement. 4.4.4. Object complement vs. subject complement Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing object complements from subject complements are: ✔ An object complement follows a complex transitive verb and says something about the direct object of the verb. ✔ If there is no direct object in the clause, do not look for the object complement; it cannot be present. ✔ A subject complement follows a linking/copular verb and says something about the subject (what/ how it is). ✔ Examples like the two clauses below show that structures with sC and oC can be quite similar. She| has been elected| president|. (subject + linking verb + sC) They| have elected| her| president|. (subject + transitive verb + dO + oC) ✔ To check if a verb is a copular verb (followed by a sC) or a transitive verb (followed by an object) you can try to replace it by a form of to be, possibly accompanied by 'I think', as in He seems nervous = he is nervous, I think. (Hasselgård, Lysvåg, & Johansson, n.d.) 4.5. The Adverbial 4.5.1. Definition and properties Leech (1992, pp. 10-11) sees adverbials as the most peripheral of the clause elements which make up the structure of a clause, possibly for reasons regarding both their position and their relevance. He defines the adverbial as the (normally) optional element of the clause which adds extra meaning about the event or state of affair expressed by the verbal. According to the function of adverbial in the clause, Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson (n.d.) distinguish three classes: a. adjuncts, b. conjuncts, and c. disjuncts6. a. Adjuncts indicate the circumstances of the action. They express relations such as time, place, manner, reason, condition, etc. They are usually optional, but in certain situations are obligatory. Downing and Locke call this class circumstantial adjuncts and this can be a way for the Romanian learner to see more clearly the analogy with the Romanian complemente circumstanțiale and their corresponding 6 For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts. propoziții completive circumstanțiale. Exactly like their Romanian counterparts, adjuncts answer the questions where, when, how, why etc. and are named accordingly. Because of that (adjunct of reason), he took a job in a store (place adjunct) last year (time adjunct). Another characteristic the two languages have in common at clause level is that more than one adjunct can occur in a clause (see the example above). This is not true about the other elements of the clause, as only one subject, verbal, or direct object can occur in the same clause. b. Conjuncts are adverbials that connect and express relations between independent clauses or sentences. They are realized by conjunctive/ coordinating adverbs that can occur - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of the two clauses in a compound sentence. - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of two related sentences. The table below provides examples of conjuncts and the most common types of relation they express. conjuncts of time afterward, at one moment...at the next, henceforth, later, meanwhile, now... then, sometimes... sometimes, soon, then, etc. addition also, besides, then too, for one thing... for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, partly... partly, etc. similarity likewise, similarly, etc. concession/ exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand... on the contrast other hand, on the contrary, rather, still, etc. result accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc. condition otherwise (= if not) Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson describe conjuncts as “text organizers, in that they guide the hearer/reader through the text, showing how the different pieces hang together, and where they belong in the text” (n.d.). c. Disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson, they are evaluative and express a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe) b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise) c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to tell you the truth) d. the speaker’s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely, she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money') Notice: In spite of their name, adverbials do not necessarily contain adverbs. Adverbials  can be realized by adverbs, AdvPs, PpPs, NPs, or subordinate clauses (see table above). 4.5.2. The Adverbial Complement Though adverbials are normally optional, some elements that convey the same information as adverbials, are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. Such adverbials are called adverbial complements (aC). Typically, adverbial complements refer to space, that is, location or direction. adverbial adverbial complement Your mother is talking on the phone. Your mother is on the phone. The sentence is complete without the The sentence is not complete without the adverbial. adverbial complement. Because the most common verbal in the SVcA structure is be, we should note that it can be quite difficult to distinguish between an adverbial complement and certain varieties of subject complement. This is due to the complex nature of be, recognized by some grammars to have a copular nature even in contexts where the location of the subject is expressed, i.e. They were in the garden. One possible argument would be that the part that follows be refers to the subject, by giving information about its location, as in the example above, and this makes be copular. However, for the Romanian speaker it is more convenient to adopt the view that recognizes be as a lexical verb expressing the existence or location of the subject, in line with the Romanian grammar, and label adverbial complements expressing location/existence as obligatory adverbials. 4.6. Verb complementation and clause patterns 4.6.1. Verb complementation The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the complementation of the Verb and should be seen in relation to valency. Thus, as we saw in 3.8., in an example like She left suddenly, the omission of the adverbial produces no effect on the verb meaning and on the clause structure (SV both with and without the optional adjunct). If we omit any of the other elements of the clause, as in Left suddenly or She suddenly, we will no longer have a complete meaningful clause. Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson suggest that “the complementation of a verb thus consists in supplying all the elements that are necessary for that verb to function as verbal in a clause” (n.d.). This means that the great majority of clauses in English contain a subject and a verbal, as well as other elements whose presence is determined by the verb or, put differently, by its valency, as we saw in 3.4.3. 4.6.2. Clause patterns According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern7 is a pattern which contains a main verb and whatever 7 Also called verb pattern. elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically. Downing and Locke (2006, p. 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation: intransitive, copular and transitive. type of complementation structural illustration comment pattern intransitive S-V Ted| laughed. verb used intransitively copular S-V-C The idea| is| crazy linking verb transitive monotransitive S-V-O He| bought| a video verb used transitively ditransitive S-V-O-O He| gave| Jo| the video pattern with iO complex-transitive S-V-O-C I| find| the idea| crazy pattern with oC The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation. intransitive S-V-A Your mother| is| on the phone. pattern with obligatory A Each pattern specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ right now, the verb pattern will still be recognized as SVO. In Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson’s view, a verb with a valency of one (=a one-place verb) needs only a subject in order to build a complete sentence. A verb with a valency of two (=a two-place verb) needs two other clause elements (subject + direct object, subject + subject predicative, or subject + adverbial). A verb with a valency of three (=a three-place verb) needs three other clause elements (subject+ indirect object + direct object, subject+ direct object + object predicative, or subject + direct object + adverbial). No English verb has a valency of more than three (n.d.). There are many verbs in English that admit more than one type of complementation and thus have different valencies in different patterns. They are mostly verbs of general meaning, such as get, turn and make, as well as some of the sense verbs (smell, see, etc.). As Downing and Locke’s examples show, make is a verb that admits all but intransitive patterns: I|’ll make| some tea. SVdO I|’ll make| you| a pizza. SViOdO He| made| the coffee| too strong. SVdOoC They| make| a good couple. SVsC It| makes| for good relations. SVpO To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place verbs, with a subject and two other elements (SVOO and SVOC). 4.2. The Indirect Object A clause may have an indirect object, in addition to a direct object. The indirect object (iO) refers to a person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence. The person generally receives something or benefits from something. The following example can be used to illustrate that the indirect object will fill the function of the direct object if the latter is omitted, and that such an omission changes the meaning of the whole clause. In Bob is cooking his girlfriend a meal, his girlfriend is the indirect object (representing the person who benefits from the action) and a meal is the direct object. If a meal is omitted, his girlfriend no longer benefits from the subject’s action and becomes the part that is directly affected, with Bob at the same time becoming a cannibal! Note that the indirect object consisting of a prepositional phrase normally comes after the direct object. Consequently, there are two possible variants of a SVOO clause, I will give Jane my umbrella. (SViOdO) and I will give my umbrella to Jane. (SVdOiO). The two structures differ to some extent in their use, because of the general tendency for the more important information to come at the end. For example, if Jane has already been mentioned, but not the umbrella, we would expect the first to be used rather than the second, though in speech the focus can be indicated by giving it prominence in the intonation pattern. 4.2.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of indirect object a. typically, NPs Phil has booked all his friends tickets for the show. (beneficiary as NP) b. less typically, wh-nominal relative clauses, which occur more usually as a prepositional alternative: You can lend the dictionary to whoever needs it. (recipient as nominal relative Cl.) c. marginally, a non-finite -ing clause or a PP. These options are only open to a recipient iO. I’m giving reading magazines less importance lately. (-ing cl) Let’s give before lunch-time priority. (PpP) 4.2.2. The meanings of the indirect object Greenbaum and Nelson identify the recipient role of the indirect object as the entity that is indirectly affected by the action, generally the person receiving something or intended to receive something, or benefiting in some way (2002, p. 36) Bob was cooking her a meal. Downing and Locke (2006, p. 55) distinguish between two different meanings (they call them semantic roles): recipient (the one who receives the goods or information), and beneficiary (‘intended recipient’). The authors propose the following examples: Recipient Oi Beneficiary Oi She has lent me a few CDs. I’ll buy you a drink. The doctor gave the injured man oxygen. He got us the tickets. Sammy Karanja is teaching the students maths She left him a note. With both its recipient and beneficiary roles, indirect objects have an optional prepositional paraphrase. For the recipient, the preposition is to, for the beneficiary it is for. 4.2.3. Direct objects vs. indirect objects Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing direct objects from indirect objects are: ✓ An action verb affects a direct object directly (there is no preposition between them). ✓ Before looking for the indirect object, look for the direct object. A direct object is possible only if the direct object is present in the clause. ✓ An indirect object is normally a person who receives something, such as a gift or a favour, or who beneficiates from an activity performed by the subject. ✓ The direct object answers the question >. I told the children a story. I told what? A story (dO). ✓ The indirect object answers the question >. ✓ I told the children a story./ I told a story to the children. I told to whom? The children (indirect object). ✓ If the direct object is omitted, the meaning of the sentence will alter or no longer make sense. I told the children a story. I baked my daughter a cake. ✓ If you remove the indirect object, the sentence will make sense but will be less clear, as the recipient/beneficiary remains unknown. I told the children a story. I baked my daughter a cake. 4.3. The prepositional/oblique object Besides direct and indirect objects, mainstream English grammars recognize yet another class of objects, namely the prepositional/oblique objects. Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson describe the prepositional/ oblique object as “an element which might have been expressed as a direct object, but which has lost that status in competition with another phrase, as in He stuffed his mouth with peanuts. (Cf. He stuffed peanuts into his mouth.)” (n.d.). The function of prepositional object is always realized by a prepositional phrase whose head preposition is often part of a transitive prepositional verb (i.e., abide by, absolve from, account for, argue about, defer to, glance at, lean against, long for, look at, look for, refer to, reply to, yearn for, etc.). Direct objects, indirect objects, and prepositional/oblique objects are all illustrated in the following table.  type description example direct object (dO) entity acted upon I gave her a present. entity indirectly affected by indirect object (iO) I gave her a present/I gave a present to her. the action prepositional/oblique object introduced by a I was looking for a present. object (ppO/oO) preposition Note that there are indirect objects that consist of prepositional phrases, just like the prepositional/oblique objects. The difference is that an indirect object cannot occur without a direct object, while a prepositional/oblique object can. 4.4. The Object Complement In linguistics, complement broadly means a word, phrase or clause that is necessary to complete the meaning of a certain structure. One type of complement in English grammar is called object complement (also called ‘object predicative), defined by Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson as a syntactic function in the clause, occurring after a complex transitive verb and a direct object. (n.d.) The object complement is a type of complement because it completes the object in that it describes what the object refers to: At the time, she thought him a quiet, gentle man. (thesunmagazine.org) In the example above, a quiet, gentle man is the object complement, and him is the object. The object complement refers to a property or the identity of the direct object, but has a link to the verbal at the same time (Hasselgård, et al., n.d.). The relation between the object and the object complement is representable by the verb be: an implied meaning of the above sentence is that ‘in her view, he was a quiet, gentle man’. 4.4.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of object complement The object complement can be realized 1. by a noun phrase - as in the example above. 2. by an adjective phrase, as in She has dyed her hair red. Here the implied meaning is that ‘her hair has become red as a result of dying.’ The set of verbs which permit an object complement is not large and includes to keep, declare, leave, call, like, want, consider, find, think, get, make, send, turn, elect, appoint, vote. When realized by adjective phrases, object complements can be quite easily taken for adverbials of manner, so extra attention should be paid to their basic features and behavior. 4.4.2. The meanings of the object complement For reasons of similarity, the meanings of the object complement will be treated in the following section, together with the meanings of the subject complement. 4.5. The Subject Complement The subject complement is the element of the clause which typically follows the verb be, and which consists either of a noun phrase or an adjective phrase: Jane was the new manager. She was very accomplished. This type of complement is called a subject complement, because it typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject. From the two examples above we find out who Jane is (the new manager) and how she is (very accomplished). 4.5.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of subject complement Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson (n.d.) define the subject complement as the clause element that comes in addition to a subject and a link/copular (two-place) verb, normally placed after the verb. The subject complement is realized by 1. a noun phrase (see first example above). 2. an adjective phrase (see second example above) 3. a nominal embedded clause, as in The problem is finding the right person Because the subject complement is primarily a complement, its basic function is to complete something. Similar to the oC’s behavior towards the object, the sC completes a reference or an implication related to the subject. It both shares some of the features of the oC and has properties unique to itself. The relation created in the clause by the linking verb is representable by the ‘=’ sign, and can be diagrammed as follows: Jane = the new manager. Jane = very accomplished. 4.5.2. The meanings of the subject complement and object complement8 The complement attributes an identification or characterization to the subject – if it is a subject complement (sC) – or to the direct object – if it is an object complement (oC): subject complement object complement Jane is my boss. They have made Jane my boss. The girls were happy. The news made the girls happy. 4.5.3. Linking/copular verbs and subject complement If a verbal requires a subject complement (sC) to complete the clause, then the verbal is realized by a linking/copular verb. The most common linking verb is be, but the category also includes appear, become, 8 The meanings listed here were identified by Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson in An Introduction to English Grammar, Longman, 2002 seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc. The linking verbs link the subject and the subject complement in a clause. Downing and Locke (2006, pp. 87-88) distinguish between a. verbs of being, b. verbs of becoming and c. other linking verbs. a. verbs of being are stative and introduce current or existing attributes: The reason is simple. Lloyd George was a man of principle but he was also intensely pragmatic. We have to remain optimistic about the future. b. verbs of becoming are dynamic and introduce resulting attributes. In addition, grow suggests gradual change, while go is used to indicate drastic changes: Her latest novel has become a best-seller. We began to grow uneasy when the skin-diver didn’t appear. His face went white. c. other linking verbs can function as copulas with specific adjectives as sC: The child fell flat on its face. The soldiers all fell asleep/ fell ill. The label has come unstuck. d. a verb phrase can also function as copular verb, if it indicates some kind of identity of the subject and the subject complement, as in She is called Susan. and She has been voted 'woman of the year' (Hasselgård, et al., n.d.). Be links the subject not only to a characteristic (sC realized by AdjP) or a status (sC realized by NP) but also to a circumstance of position, place or time (Your mother is on the phone.). The complement, underlined in the example, is then identified as adverbial complement. 4.5.4. Object complement vs. subject complement Some possible rules of thumb for distinguishing object complements from subject complements are: ✓ An object complement follows a complex transitive verb and says something about the direct object of the verb. ✓ If there is no direct object in the clause, do not look for the object complement; it cannot be present. ✓ A subject complement follows a linking/copular verb and says something about the subject (what/ how it is). ✓ Examples like the two clauses below show that structures with sC and oC can be quite similar. She| has been elected| president|. (subject + linking verb + sC) They| have elected| her| president|. (subject + transitive verb + dO + oC) ✓ To check if a verb is a copular verb (followed by a sC) or a transitive verb (followed by  an object) you can try to replace it by a form of to be, possibly accompanied by 'I think', as in He seems nervous = he is nervous, I think. (Hasselgård, et al., n.d.) 4.6. The Adverbial Leech (1992, pp. 10-11) sees adverbials as the most peripheral of the clause elements which make up the structure of a clause, possibly for reasons regarding both their position and their relevance. He defines the adverbial as the (normally) optional element of the clause which adds extra meaning about the event or state of affair expressed by the verbal. According to the function of adverbial in the clause, Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson (n.d.) distinguish three classes: a. adjuncts, b. conjuncts, and c. disjuncts9. a. Adjuncts indicate the circumstances of the action. They express relations such as time, place, manner, reason, condition, etc. They are usually optional, but in certain situations are obligatory. Adjuncts answer the questions where, when, how, why etc. and are named accordingly. Because of that (adjunct of reason), he took a job in a store (place adjunct) last year (time adjunct). Another characteristic of adjuncts is that more than one of them can occur in a clause (see the example above). This is not true about the other elements of the clause, as only one subject, verbal, or direct object can occur in the same clause. b. Conjuncts are adverbials that connect and express relations between independent clauses or sentences. They are realized by conjunctive/ coordinating adverbs that can occur - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of the two clauses in a compound sentence. - at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the second of two related sentences. The table below provides examples of conjuncts and the most common types of relation they express. conjuncts of time afterward, at one moment...at the next, henceforth, later, meanwhile, now...then, sometimes...sometimes, soon , then, etc. addition also, besides, then too, for one thing...for another (thing), furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, partly...partly, etc. similarity likewise, similarly, etc. concession/ exactly the opposite , however, instead, nevertheless, on (the) one hand... on the other contrast hand, on the contrary, rather, still, etc. result accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus, etc. condition otherwise (= if not) c. Disjuncts are adverbials that are always optional in the clause. According to Hasselgård, Lysvåg and Johansson, they are evaluative and express 9 For reasons of clarity, during analysis and discussion, the term adverbial will commonly refer to adjuncts.  a. the speaker's judgement of the truth of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe) b. the speaker's evaluation of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise) c. the speaker's comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to tell you the truth) d. the speaker’s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. Wisely, she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money') 4.6.1. Classes of phrases and clauses that realize the function of adverbial In spite of their name, adverbials do not necessarily contain adverbs. Adverbials can be realized by 1. adverb phrases She quickly put her gloves on. 2. prepositional phrases She put her gloves in her purse. 3. noun phrases That morning he felt so much stronger. 4. embedded clauses. She put her gloves on as soon as she could 4.6.2. The Adverbial Complement Though adverbials are normally optional, some elements that convey the same information as adverbials are obligatory because the main verb is not complete without them. Such adverbials are called adverbial complements (aC). Typically, adverbial complements refer to space, that is, location or direction. adverbial adverbial complement Your mother is talking on the phone. Your mother is on the phone. The sentence is complete without the The sentence is not complete without the adverbial. adverbial complement. Another name for adverbial complements expressing location/existence is obligatory adverbial. 4.7. Verb complementation and clause patterns 4.7.1. Verb complementation The element(s) required after the verb to complete its meaning is/are called the complementation of the Verb and should be seen in relation to valency. 4.7.2. Clause patterns According to Leech (2006), a clause pattern10 is a pattern which contains a main verb and whatever elements have to follow that verb to complete its meaning grammatically. Downing and Locke (2006, p. 83) identify and illustrate three main types of complementation: 10 Also called verb pattern. intransitive, copular and transitive. type of structural illustration comment complementation pattern intransitive S-V Ted| laughed. verb used intransitively copular S-V-C The idea| is| crazy linking verb transitive monotransitive S-V-O He| bought| a video verb used transitively ditransitive S-V-O-O He| gave| Jo| the video pattern with iO complex-transitive S-V-O-C I| find| the idea| crazy pattern with oC The pattern with obligatory adverbial can be added as another type of complementation. intransitive S-V-A Your mother| is| on the phone. pattern with obligatory A Each ‘minimal’ pattern above specifies what is required for completeness, in other words, all the elements that are sufficient and necessary for meaningful complete clauses. However, optional adverbials can always be added, but this does not affect the description of the basic pattern. For instance, if we add an adverbial to a SVO clause pattern, as in The man/ is writing/ a poem/ right now, the (minimal) verb pattern will still be recognized as SVO. To summarize, in English there are one-place verbs, which require a subject only (SV), two-place verbs which involve a subject and one other element (SVO, SVC and SVA) and three-place verbs, with a subject and two other elements (SVOO and SVOC). Further reading and video resources Macari, Ileana Oana, English Morpho-syntax – A view from Romanian, Casa Editoriala Demiurg Plus, Iași, 2021 Exercises 4.1. Identify the type of phrase (NP, VP, AP, AdvP): 1) anti-terrorist laws; 7) a student of Physics; 2) quite hot; 8) very kind to Mary; 3) pretty soon; 9) rather carelessly; 4) the urban young; 10) before the war; 5) in a hurry; 11) every bridge over the river; 6) a small black bag; 12) so efficient in his work 4.2. Identify the clause patterns in the examples below: 1. All that glitters is not gold. 2. Strike while the iron is hot. 3. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. 4. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. 5. Fine words butter no parsnips. 6. The only safe pleasure for a parliamentarian  is a bag of boiled sweets. 7. The hand that rocks the cradle rules the 8. Love is blind. world. 9. In the country of the blind, the one-eyed 10. Hunger is the best sauce. man is king. 11. Discretion is the better part of valor. 12. Let sleeping dogs lie. 13. Brevity is the soul of wit. 14. The road to hell is paved with good intentions. 15. Jack of all trades is master of none. 16. Fortune assists the brave. 17. He who pays the piper calls the tune. 18. God helps those who help themselves. 19. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. *4.3. The sentences below are ambiguous. All of them select verbs which can be analyzed both as ditransitive and as complex-transitive. Explain the ambiguity by indicating the meanings of the two structural patterns in each case: a) Gina found him a good mechanic. b) Some people will call him a doctor. c) They made him a model instructor. 4.4. The clauses below are analyzed into their constituents. Classify each one according to its function, as S, V, sC, oC, dO, iO, aC or A: Only one person | heard | the doctor’s message. The weather today| suggests | a severe thunderstorm. The driver| ran| the engine | full speed. He | dropped | his pen | because he was nervous. Anne | looked | quite depressed | last week. I | told | my boss | that I cannot take it anymore. I | sold | the house | for a thousand dollars. Hopefully, | we | are going | to Greece. Frankly, | I | do not wish | to say anything. The doctor who performed the operation | was | George. He | immediately | won | our hearts. Christina | is not | the woman that her mother was. The man who stood on the corner of the street | burgled | the wrong house. 4.5. Use the verbs listed below in sentences structured as indicated by the structural pattern accompanying it. You can change the form of the verb: a) cry (S-V) b) make (S-V-dO-oC) c) cut (S-V-dO) d) remain (S-V-sC)  e) step (S-V-A) f) sell (S-V-O-O) g) name (S-V-dO-oC) h) eat (S-V-O-A) i) attend (S-V-O) j) give (S-V-iO-dO) 4.6. For each of the verbs listed below find the complementation pattern it can enter into: copulative, intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive, complex-transitive. Construct sentences for each one: fall, bring, give, elect, drink, die, become, turn, write 4.7. What valency do the italicized main verbs in the sentences below have? a. Seasoned instructors find the book a useful resource. b. Do not forget to check out your bonus goodies. c. In a recent survey of over 100 meeting professionals, they said that 50% of conference panels were merely “okay”. d. Conference panels are typically facilitated by moderators who guide the discussion throughout the event. e. Each panelist has 15 minutes of uninterrupted sharing of his or her perspective. f. Obviously, everyone has an opinion. g. A neutral judge withholds personal opinions. h. You must give students repeated opportunities to answer. i. A person with great oratorical skills gives speeches on timely issues that the audience cares about. j. Inject a little humor to keep the conversation lively. k. The success of the program rests largely in hour hands. l. An intriguing essay title will capture your audience’s attention. m. When you clarify the starting conditions, you will find that you have much more freedom than you actually thought. n. Public speakers should be good conversationalists. o. Be prepared for one of Murphy’s Laws that says anything can happen. p. Your research will take you more than a few hours if you get sucked into the Google vortex.