Kolb and Kolb 2005 Experiential Learning Styles PDF

Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/...

Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education Author(s): Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb Source: Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Jun., 2005), pp. 193-212 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40214287. Accessed: 26/03/2014 12:01 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at. http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].. Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Academy of Management Learning &Education. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ®Academy of Management Learning & Education. 2005, Vol. 4, No. 2, 193-212. LearningStyles and Learning Spaces: EnhancingExperiential Learningin HigherEducation ALICE Y. KOLB Experience-BasedLearningSystems DAVID A. KOLB Case WesternReserveUniversity Drawingon thefoundationaltheoriesofJohnDewey and KurtLewin,we examine recent developmentsin theoryand researchon experientiallearningand explorehow thiswork can enhance experientiallearningin highereducation.We introducetheconceptof learningspace as a framework forunderstandingtheinterfacebetweenstudentlearning learningenvironmentWe illustratethe use of thelearning stylesand theinstitutional space framework in threecase studiesoflongitudinalinstitutional developmentFinally, we presentprinciplesforthe enhancementofexperientiallearningin highereducation and suggesthow experientiallearningcan be applied throughout the educational environment developmentprograms,includinglongitudinaloutcome by institutional assessment curriculumdevelopmentstudentdevelopmentand facultydevelopment "(Thereis a) need offorminga theoryofex- tools and techniquesto providelearnerswithex- perience in orderthateducation may be in- periencesfromwhichtheycan learn. Othershave telligentlyconducted upon the basis of used the termto describe learningthatis a mind- "-John experience. Dewey less recording of experience. Yet experiential learning is above all a philosophyof education so practicalas a goodtheory" "Thereis nothing based on what Dewey (1938)called a "theoryof - KurtLewin experience."He argued thatwhile traditionaled- ucation had littleneed fortheorysince practice Recentefforts to improvehighereducation,includ- was determinedby tradition, thenew experiential ing reports from the National Research Council approach to education needed a sound theoryof (Bransford, Brown,& Cocking2000),the American experienceto guide its conduct.In this essay we PsychologicalAssociation(1997),and a numberof examine the theoryofexperientiallearning(Kolb, otherscholars(Baxter-Magolda,1999;Boyatzis,Co- 1984) and related research to explore how this wen,& Kolb 1995;Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs2002; and Associates, knowledge can be used to enhance learning in King,2003;Light,2001;Mentkowski highereducation. 2000; Zull 2002) have focused on improvingthe We begin witha briefsummaryof experiential learningprocessin educationthroughtheapplica- tion of research fromwhat has been called "the learningtheory(ELT) and an overviewof current researchbased on the theory.This is followedby new science oflearning"(Branford, Brown,& Cock- of this research is focused theintroduction oftwonew developmentsin ELT,a ing, 2000).One stream on the conceptof experientiallearning.Experien- refinement in theassessmentofexperientiallearn- tial learning is oftenmisunderstoodas a set of ing stylesusing the LearningStyleInventory (LSI) and the introductionof the concept of learning space as a framework forunderstandingtheinter- We thankJamesBailey,Sandy Bell, RichardBoyatzis,David face betweenstudentlearningstylesand theedu- Justice,D. ChristopherKayes, Tony Lingham,Charalampos cational learning environmentbased on Lewin's Mainemelis,VerenaMurphy, RonaldSims,BarrySheckley,Yo- shi Yamazaki,and JamesZull fortheirhelpfulfeedbackon this concept of life space. Use of the learning space manuscript. framework is illustratedin case studiesoflongitu- 193 This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ^94 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June dinal institutional development in threediverse periencesintoexistingconceptsand accommodat- in programs higher education,theClevelandInsti- ingexistingconceptstonewexperience. tuteofArt,theCase WesternReserveUniversity 6.Learning is theprocessofcreating knowledge. undergraduate program, and the Case Weather- ELT proposesa constructivist theoryof learning head School of ManagementMBAprogram.Fi- wherebysocial knowledgeis created and re- nally,we presentprinciplesfortheenhancement createdin thepersonalknowledgeofthelearner. ofexperiential learningin highereducationand Thisstandsincontrast tothe"transmission" model suggest how experientiallearningcan be applied on whichmuchcurrenteducationalpracticeis throughout theeducational environment by insti- based,wherepreexisting fixedideas are transmit- tutionaldevelopment programs thatinclude longi- tedtothelearner. tudinaloutcomeassessment,curriculum devel- ELT defineslearningas "theprocesswhereby opment, student development,and faculty knowledgeis createdthrough thetransformation development. ofexperience. Knowledgeresultsfrom thecombi- nationofgraspingand transforming experience" (Kolb,1984:41).TheELTmodelportrays twodialec- EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY - tically related modes of grasping experience Experiential learningtheory drawson theworkof ConcreteExperience (CE) and Abstract Conceptu- 20th prominent century scholars who gave experi- alization (AC) - and two dialectically related ence a centralrole in theirtheoriesof human modesoftransforming experience - Reflective Ob- learning and - developmentnotably John Dewey, servation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE). KurtLewin,JeanPiaget,WilliamJames, CarlJung, Experiential learningis a processofconstructing PauloFreire, CarlRogersand others - todevelopa knowledge involvesa creativetensionamong that holisticmodeloftheexperiential learningprocess thefourlearningmodesthatis responsive tocon- and a multilinear model of adult development textualdemands.Thisprocessis portrayed as an (Kolb,1984).Thetheory is builton sixpropositions idealized learningcycle or spiral where the thatare sharedbythesescholars. learner"touchesall thebases"- experiencing, re- 1.Learning is bestconceivedas a process,notin flecting,thinking, and acting- in a recursive pro- termsofoutcomes. To improve learningin higher cess thatis responsiveto the learningsituation education, theprimary focusshouldbe on engag- and whatis beinglearned.Immediate orconcrete ing students in a process thatbest enhances their experiences are the basis for observations and re- - a learning process that includes feedback on the flections.These reflections are assimilated and effectiveness of theirlearningefforts. As Dewey distilledintoabstractconceptsfromwhichnew notes,"[E]ducation mustbe conceivedas a con- implications foractioncan be drawn.Theseimpli- tinuing reconstruction of experience:... the pro- cations can be activelytestedand serveas guides cess and goal ofeducationare one and thesame in creatingnewexperiences. In TheArtofChang- thing"(Dewey 1897:79). ing the Brain: Enriching Teaching byExploring the 2. All learningis relearning. Learning is best of Biology Learning, James Zull, a biologist and facilitated by a processthatdrawsout the stu- founding director ofCWRU'sUniversity Centerfor dents'beliefsand ideas abouta topicso thatthey Innovationin Teachingand Education(UCITE), can be examined, tested,and integrated withnew, sees a link betweenELT and neurosciencere- morerefined ideas. search,suggesting thatthisprocessofexperiential 3. Learningrequiresthe resolution of conflicts learningis relatedtotheprocessofbrainfunction- betweendialecticallyopposedmodesofadapta- ing(as shownin Fig. 1). tionto the world.Conflict, differences, and dis- agreement are whatdrivethelearningprocess.In Putintowords,thefigure illustrates thatcon- theprocessoflearningone is calledupontomove creteexperiencescomethrough thesensory backand forth betweenopposingmodesofreflec- cortex,reflective observation involvesthein- tionand actionand feelingand thinking. tegrative cortex at the back, creating newab- 4. Learningis a holisticprocessofadaptationto stractconceptsoccursin thefrontal integra- theworld.Notjusttheresultofcognition, learning tive cortex, and active testing involves the involvestheintegrated functioning of the total per- motor brain. In other words, the learning cycle son- thinking, feeling,perceiving,and behaving. arises fromthe structure of the brain(Zull 5. Learningresultsfromsynergetic transactions 2002:18-19). betweenthe personand the environment. In Pi- aget'sterms, learning occurs through equilibration Theconceptoflearningstyledescribesindivid- ofthedialecticprocessesofassimilating newex- ual differences in learningbased on thelearner's This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 195 Active ^T y^ Premotor/-^^ *\ ^^ W j^XFrontal and / 1 Sensory V ^ / J motor/ J and ^J^^^. Concrete Abstract integrate- ^/ / experience ^^f ^postsensory^X^^" hypotheses~"^^\ cortex ( J*^' ) ) I ^^^^^^^^ Reflective y^^^^ observation FIGURE 1 The ExperientialLearningCycle and Regions ofthe Cerebral Cortex.Note.Reprintedwithpermission from(Zull 2002). preferenceforemployingdifferent phases of the particularlearning style and life path- develop- learning cycle. Because of our hereditaryequip- mentof CE increases affectivecomplexity, of RO ment,our particularlife experiences,and the de- increases perceptualcomplexity, of AC increases mands of our presentenvironment, we develop a symboliccomplexity,and of AE increases behav- preferred of way choosingamong the fourlearning ioral complexity. modes.We resolvetheconflictbetweenbeing con- creteor abstractand between being active or re- RESEARCH ON EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING flectivein patterned,characteristicways. THEORY ELTas definedbyKolbpositsthatlearningis the major determinantof human development,and ELT was developed followingLewin's plan forthe how individuals learn shapes the course of their creationof scientificknowledgeby conceptualiz- personal development.His previousresearchhas ing phenomena throughformal,explicit,testable shownthatlearningstylesare influencedby per- theory.In Lewin's approach,"beforea systemcan sonality type,educational specialization, career be fullyusefultheconceptsin ithave tobe defined choice,and currentjob role and tasks (Kolb,1984). in a way that(1) permitsthe treatment ofboththe Yamazaki (2002,2003)has recentlyidentifiedcul- qualitative and quantitativeaspects of phenom- tural influencesas well. The ELT developmental ena in a single system,(2) adequately represents model (Kolb, 1984)definesthreestages: (1) acqui- the conditional-genetic(or causal) attributesof sition,frombirthto adolescence, wherebasic abil- phenomena,(3) facilitatesthemeasurement(orop- ities and cognitivestructuresdevelop; (2) special- erationaldefinition) ofthese attributes,and (4) al- ization,fromformalschooling throughthe early lows both generalizationto universal laws and work and personal experiences of adulthood, concretetreatmentof the individual case" (Cart- where social, educational, and organizational wright,1951:ix). A theorydeveloped by this pro- socialization forcesshape the developmentof a cess can be a powerfulinstrument forstimulating particular,specialized learningstyle;and (3) inte- and focusingscholarlyresearchconversation. gration in midcareerand later life, where non- Since its firststatementin 1971(Kolb,1971;Kolb, dominantmodesoflearningare expressedin work Rubin,& Mclntyre,1971),therehave been many and personal life. Development throughthese studies using ELT to advance thetheoryand prac- stages is characterizedby increasingcomplexity tice ofexperientiallearning.The July2005update and relativismin adapting to the world and by of the ExperientialLearningTheoryBibliography increased integrationof the dialectic conflictsbe- (Kolb & Kolb,2005)includes 1876entries.Because tweenAC and CE and AE and RO. Developmentis ELT is a holistictheoryof learningthatidentifies conceivedas multilinear, based on an individual's learning style differencesamong differentaca- This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 196 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June demicspecialties,it is notsurprising to see that again in 1999.Recentcritiquehas been morefo- ELTresearchis highlyinterdisciplinary, address- cusedonthetheory thantheinstrumentexamining ing learning and educational issues in many the intellectualoriginsand underlying assump- fields.Ananalysisofthe 1004entriesin the 1999 tionsofELTfromwhatmightbe called a critical bibliography (Kolb,Boyatzis,& Mainemelis, 2001) theoryperspective, wherethe theoryis seen as shows207studiesin management, 430in educa- individualistic, and technological cognitivist, (e.g., tion,104ininformation science,101inpsychology, Vince,1998;Holman,Pavlica,& Thorpe,1997;Hop- 72inmedicine, 63innursing, 22inaccounting and kins,1993).Kayes (2002)has reviewedtheseand 5 in law.About55%ofthisresearchhas appeared othercriticsofELTand offered his owncritiqueof inrefereed journalarticles,20%indoctoraldisser- the critics.He suggeststhatcriticshave over- tations,10% in booksand book chapters, and 15% lookedtheroleofVygotsky's social-constructivist in conference proceedings, research reports, and learningtheory in theELTtheory ofdevelopment othervenues. and the role of personalknowledgeand social Therehave beentwocomprehensive reviewsof knowledgein experiential learning.He proposes the ELT one literature, qualitative and one quanti- an extension ofELTbased onLacan'spoststructur- tative.In 1991Hickcoxextensively reviewedthe alistanalysisthatelaboratesthefracturebetween theoretical originsofELT and qualitatively ana- personaland social knowledgeand therolethat lyzed81studiesthatfocusedon theapplicationof languageplaysin shapingexperience. theELTmodelas wellas on theapplicationofthe conceptoflearningstylein accounting and busi- LEARNING STYLE ASSESSMENT ness education, helpingprofessions, medicalpro- fessions,postsecondary educationand teachered- Muchoftheresearchon ELT has focusedon the ucation.She concludedthatoverall61.7%of the conceptoflearningstyleusingtheLearningStyle studiessupported ELT,16.1%showedmixedsup- Inventory (LSI)toassess individuallearningstyles port,and 22.2%did notsupportELT.In 1994Iliff (Kolb1971,1999a,b; see also Hickox, 1991).Although conducted a meta-analysis of101quantitative LSI individualstestedon theLSI showmanydifferent studiesculledfrom 275dissertations and 624arti- patternsofscores,previousresearchwiththein- cles thatwerequalitative, theoretical,and quanti- strument has identified fourlearningstylesthat tativestudiesofELTand theKolbLearningStyle are associatedwithdifferent approachestolearn- Inventory (LSI; Kolb 1971,1985,1999a;see also ing:diverging, assimilating, converging, and ac- Hickox,1991).Ilifffoundthat49 studiesshowed commodating. The following summary ofthefour strongsupportfortheLSI,40 showedmixedsup- basic learningstylesis based on bothresearch port, and 12studiesshowednosupport. Abouthalf and clinicalobservation of thesepatternsofLSI ofthe 101studiesreported sufficient data on the scores(Kolb,1984,1999a). LSI scales tocomputeeffect sizes bywayofmeta- An individualwithdiverging stylehas CE and analysis.Moststudiesreported correlations that RO as dominantlearningabilities.People with fellin the.2 to.5 rangefortheLSI scales. In con- thislearningstyleare best at viewingconcrete clusionIliff suggestedthatthemagnitude ofthese situations from manydifferent pointsofview.The statisticsis notsufficient tomeetstandardsofpre- styleis labeled"diverging" becausea personwith dictivevalidity, whilenotingthattheLSI was not itperforms betterin situations thatcall forgener- intended tobe a predictive psychological testlike ationofideas,suchas a "brainstorming" session. IQ, GRE,or GMAT.The LSI was originally devel- Peoplewitha diverging learningstylehavebroad oped as a self-assessment exerciseand a means culturalinterests and like to gatherinformation. forconstruct validationofELT.Judged bythestan- Theyare interested inpeople,tendtobe imagina- dardsofconstruct validity,ELT has been widely tiveand emotional, have broadculturalinterests, acceptedas a usefulframework forlearningcen- and tendtospecializein thearts.In formal learn- terededucationalinnovation, includinginstruc- ingsituations, peoplewiththediverging stylepre- tionaldesign,curriculum development, and life- fertoworkin groups,tolistenwithan openmind, long learning. Academic field and job and toreceivepersonalized feedback. classification studiesviewedas a wholealso show Anindividualwithan assimilating stylehas AC a pattern ofresultsconsistent withtheELTstruc- and RO as dominantlearningabilities.People tureofknowledge theory. withthislearningstyleare bestat understanding Mostofthedebateand critiquein theELT/LSI a wide rangeof information and puttingit into literature has centeredon thepsychometric prop- concise,logicalform. Individualswithan assimi- ertiesoftheLSI. Resultsfromthisresearchhave latingstyleare less focusedon peopleand more beenofgreatvalue in revisingtheLSI in 1985and interested in ideas and abstractconcepts.Gener- This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 197 ally, people withthis stylefindit moreimportant tion."Thispersonhas difficulty in conceptualizing thata theoryhave logical soundness than practi- or making meaning of experience;consequently, cal value. The assimilatinglearningstyleis impor- the cycle runs fromfeelings to reflection(which tant foreffectivenessin information and science remains unconsolidated) to action. The conse- careers.In formallearningsituations,people with quence ofthisNortherly patternis thatthe flowis thisstylepreferreadings,lectures,exploringana- discontinuous and the actions are poorly or- lytical models, and having time to thinkthings ganized since theyare not informedby the foun- through. dation ofAC meaning"(Hunt,1987:155). An individual witha convergingstyle has AC The Easterneremphasizes reflecting(RO) while and AE as dominantlearningabilities.People with balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The this learning style are best at findingpractical learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for uses forideas and theories.Theyhave the ability deep reflectioninformedby the abilityto be both to solve problemsand make decisions based on feelingorientedand conceptual."Personswithan findingsolutionstoquestionsorproblems.Individ- Easterlypatternhave troubleputtingplans into uals with a converginglearning style preferto action. Consequently,theyspend muchtimebur- deal withtechnicaltasksand problemsratherthan ied in thought.Because the action is shortcir- withsocial and interpersonalissues. These learn- cuited, their thoughtsare about their feelings ing skills are importantforeffectivenessin spe- ratherthan about theirdirectactions; this imbal- cialist and technologycareers.In formallearning anced cycle lacks the rejuvenationprovided by situations,people withthis stylepreferto experi- actions" (Hunt,1987:155). mentwithnew ideas, simulations,laboratoryas- The Southerneremphasizes thinking(AC) while signments,and practicalapplications. balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The An individualwithan accommodatingstylehas learning strengthsof this styleare highlydevel- CE and AE as dominantlearningabilities. People oped conceptualand analyticcapabilities thatare withthis learningstylehave the abilityto learn informedboth by reflectionand action. "Persons fromprimarily"hands-on"experience.Theyenjoy witha Southerlypatternare notin touchwiththeir carryingout plans and involvingthemselves in feelings. They reflecton the mechanics of their new and challengingexperiences.Theirtendency actionswithoutbenefitofemotionalfeedback.The may be to act on "gut" feelings ratherthan on reflectionmay lead to reformulation of concepts logical analysis. In solvingproblems,individuals but the revisionis mechanical and sterile"(Hunt, withan accommodatinglearningstylerelymore 1987:155). heavily on people forinformation than on their The Westerneremphasizes acting (AE) while own technicalanalysis. This learningstyleis im- balancing feeling (CE) and thinking(AC). The portantforeffectiveness in action-oriented careers learningstrengthsof this style are highlydevel- such as marketingor sales. In formallearningsit- oped action skills thatare informedbothby con- uations,people withthe accommodatinglearning ceptual analysis and intuitiveexperience."In this stylepreferto workwithothersto get assignments pattern,the Westernergoes directlyfromfeelings done,to set goals, to do fieldwork,and to testout to conceptualizingwithoutsortingouttheconcrete different approaches to completinga project. experience. Consequently,the initial conceptual Recenttheoreticaland empiricalworkis show- framework is likelyto be unclear,withlittlepossi- ing thatthe originalfourlearningstyles- assimi- bility to correct it throughreflection"(Hunt,1987: lating, converging,accommodating,and diverg- 155). ing- can be expanded toshowninedistinctstyles. A "Balancing"learningstylehas been identified David Hunt and his associates (Abby,Hunt, & by Mainemelis,Boyatzis,and Kolb (2002)thatinte- Weiser,1985;Hunt1987)identifiedfouradditional gratesAC and CE and AE and RO. In thisstudywe learning styles,which they identifiedas North- employed the Learning Style Inventory(Kolb erner,Easterner,Southerner,and Westerner.The 1999a),the AdaptiveStyleInventory (ASI,Boyatzis following descriptions of these styles include & Kolb 1993),and the LearningSkills Profile(LSP, Hunt'sanalysis, which emphasizes the impactof Boyatzis& Kolb, 1991,1995,1997)to test a funda- thestyle'sweakest learningmode on the learner's mentalELT hypothesis:The morebalanced people learningprocess. are in theirlearning orientationon the LSI, the The Northerner emphasizes feeling (CE) while greaterwill be theiradaptive flexibility on theASI. balancing acting (AE) and reflecting(RO). The To assess a balanced LSI profile,we used two learningstrengthsof this styleare a capacity for indicatorsof a balanced learning profile,using deep involvementwhile being comfortablein the absolute LSI scores on the Abstract/Concrete and outerworldofactionand theinnerworldofreflec- Active/Reflective dimensions. The results sup- This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ^98 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June portedourhypotheses, showingthatpeople with Thisresearchthatincreasesthe"resolution" of balancedlearningprofilesin bothdimensionsof thelearningstyletypegridfrom fourtoninepixels theLSI are moreadoptivelyflexiblelearnersas mayhelptodeal witha common misconception of measuredbytheASI.Therelationship was stron- ELTlearningstyles;thatis, thetendency to treat ger forthe profilebalanced on theAbstract/Con- thefourlearningstylesas fourcategoricalentities cretedimension thantheActive/Reflectivedimen- ratherthancontinuouspositionson the dimen- sion.Otherresultsshowedthatindividualswith sionsofAC-CEandAE-RO.Gould(2003)inhislast specializedLSIlearningstyleshavea greater level bookwritesextensively aboutthebias in science of skill development in the commensurate skill thatarises fromsuch dichotomous thinking. Al- quadrant oftheLSP. The also study produced some the though simple formatofthe LSI may limit em- unexpected results.Forexample,althoughwe pre- piricalidentification; thereare many theoretically, dictedthatspecializedlearningstyleswouldshow identifiablelearningstylesalong these two di- less adaptiveflexibility on the ASI, the results mensions(nottomention otherdimensions identi- showedthatthisis truefortheabstractlearning fiedby otherlearningstyletheories). Elsewhere stylesbutnotfortheconcrete styles. we have attempted toaddressthisbias: Theninelearningstylesoutlinedabove can be definedbyplacingthemonthelearningstyletype grid(Kolb1999a:6).Insteadofdividingthegridat Whenit is used in the simple,straightfor- the50thpercentiles oftheLSI normative distribu- ward,andopenwayintended, theLSIusually tionsforAC-CE and AE-RO,thenine stylesare an provides interesting and self-examination definedby dividingthe two normative distribu- discussionthatrecognizesthe uniqueness, tionsintothirds.(On the AE-ROdimensionthe complexity in individualap- and variability activeregionsare definedby raw scores ^ 12, proaches learning. dangerlies in the to The whilethe reflective regionsare definedby raw oflearningstylesintofixedtraits, reification scores< -1. On theAC-CE dimensionthecon- suchthatlearningstylesbecomestereotypes creteregionsare definedby< - 1and theabstract used topigeonholeindividualsand theirbe- regionsby> 12.(See Fig 2.) havior(Kolb,1981:290-291). CONCRETE EXPERIENCE NW N NE Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting Accommodating Northerner Diverging ACTIVE Zm Fefung RefiLg REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION Feelmg-Thinking + Reflecting Feeling-Thinking Acting OBSERVATION Thinking Westerner Balancing Easterner SW S SE Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting Converging Southerner Assimilating ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE2 The Nine-RegionLearningStyleTypeGrid This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 199 Is learningstylea fixedtraitor dynamicstate? thingelse thatmighthave directeffecton behav- ELT clearly defines learning style as a dynamic ior.The various factorsin a given lifespace are to statearisingfroman individual'spreferential res- some degree interdependent, and Lewin strongly olutionof the dual dialectics of experiencing/con- maintainsthatonly the dynamicconceptsof ten- ceptualizingand acting/reflecting. sion and forcecan deal withthese sets ofinterde- pendentfacts.This is what led himto definepsy- The stabilityand enduranceofthese states in chological needs as tension systems and their individuals comes not solely fromfixed ge- topologicalrepresentation as vectorstodenotemo- neticqualities orcharacteristics ofhumanbe- tion.Lewin postulatedthatthe particularorgani- ings: nor,for that matter,does it come from zationofa person'slifespace was determinedbya the stable fixed demands of environmental fieldof forces- both internalneeds and external circumstances.Rather,stable and enduring demands- thatpositionedthe individualin a life patternsof human individualityarise from space composed of different regions.Using map- consistentpatternsof transactionbetween like representation,the life space could be de- the individualand his or herenvironment... picted topologically.Life spaces can vary in a The way we process the possibilitiesofeach numberofdimensions,includingextension,differ- new emergingeventdeterminesthe range of entiation,integration, and level of conflict.Lewin choices and decisions we see. The choices introduceda numberofconceptsforanalysis ofthe and decisions we make to some extentdeter- lifespace and a person'srelationshipto itthatare mine the events we live through,and these applicable to the studyoflearningspaces, includ- events influenceour futurechoices. Thus, ing position, region, locomotion,equilibriumof people create themselvesthroughthe choice forces,positiveand negative valence, barriersin of actual occasions they live through(Kolb the personand the world,conflict, and goal. 1984:63-64). Three othertheoreticalframeworksinformthe ELT conceptof learningspace. UrieBronfrenbren- Nonetheless,in practice and research there is a ner's (1977,1979)work on the ecology of human markedtendencyto treatlearningstyleas a fixed developmenthas made significantsociological personalitytrait (e.g., Garner,2000). Individuals contributions to Lewin's life space concept.Bron- oftenreferto themselves and others as though frenbrenner definesthe ecologyoflearning/devel- learningstylewas a fixedcharacteristic:"I have opmentspaces as a topologicallynested arrange- trouble making decisions because I am a di- mentofstructures, each containedwithinthenext. verger.""He likes to workalone because he is an The learner'simmediatesetting,such as a course assimilator."To emphasize the dynamicnatureof or classroom, is called the microsystem, while learning style,the latest version of the LSI has otherconcurrent settings in the person's life such changed the stylenames fromdivergerto diverg- as othercourses,thedorm,orfamilyare referred to ing,and so on. as the mesosystem.The exosysfemencompasses the formaland informalsocial structuresthatin- fluencetheperson'simmediateenvironment, such LEARNING SPACE as institutionalpolicies and proceduresand cam- To elaborate further the complex,dynamicnature pus culture.Finally,themacrosystem refersto the of learningstyleand its formation throughtrans- overarching institutional patterns and values of actions between the person and environment we the wider culture,such as the culturalvalues fa- introducethe conceptof learningspace. The con- voringabstract knowledgeover practical knowl- ceptoflearningspace builds on KurtLewin'sfield edge, thatinfluenceactorsin theperson'simmedi- theoryand his concept of life space. For Lewin, ate microsystemand mesosystem.This theory bothperson and environment are interdependent provides a frameworkforanalysis of the social a variables, concept Lewin translated intoa math- systemfactorsthatinfluencelearners'experience ematical formula,B = f(p,e)where behavior is a oftheirlearningspaces. functionof person and environment. As Marrow Anotherimportantcontribution to the learning puts it, "the life space is the total psychological space concept is situated learningtheory(Lave & environment whichthepersonexperiencessubjec- Wenger 1991). Like ELT, situated learning theory tively"(1969:35).Lifespace includesall factswhich draws on Vygot sky's(1978)activitytheoryofsocial have existenceforthe person and excludes those cognitionfora conceptionofsocial knowledgethat which do not. It embraces needs, goals, uncon- conceivesoflearningas a transactionbetweenthe scious influences,memories,beliefs,events of a person and the social environment. Situationsin political,economic,and social nature,and any- situated learning theorysuch as life space and This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 200 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June learningspace are notnecessarilyphysicalplaces learning regions and integrativeor balancing but constructsof the person's experience in the learningregions.The regionsof the ELT learning social environment. These situationsare embed- space offera typologyof the different types of ded in communitiesofpracticethathave a history, learning based on the extentto which theyrequire norms,tools,and traditionsofpractice.Knowledge action versus reflection,experiencing versus resides notin theindividual'shead but in commu- thinking, therebyemphasizingsome stages ofthe nities of practice.Learning is thus a process of learningcycle overothers. becominga memberof a communityof practice The learningprocess in specialized learningre- throughlegitimateperipheralparticipation(e.g., gions, accommodating,diverging,assimilating, apprenticeship).Situatedlearningtheoryenriches and converging,stronglyemphasizes one pole of the learningspace conceptby remindingus that the feeling/thinking dialectic and one pole of the learningspaces extendbeyondtheteacherand the acting/reflectingdialectic. Individuals in the NW classroom.Theyinclude socializationintoa wider regionlearn primarilythroughactingand feeling. community of practicethatinvolvesmembership, In theNE regionlearnersemphasizereflecting and identity formation,transitioning fromnoviceto ex- feeling.In the SE region learners emphasize re- pert throughmentorship, and experience in the flectingand thinking. In theSW regionindividuals activitiesof the practice,as well as the reproduc- learn throughthinkingand acting. tionand developmentofthecommunity ofpractice In the integrativelearningregions,N, E, S, W, itselfas newcomersreplace old-timers. and C, thelearningprocess integratesthepoles of Finally,in theirtheoryof knowledge creation, one or both of the two dialectics. The learning Nonaka and Konno (1998)introducethe Japanese process in the N regionintegratesacting and re- conceptof ba, a "contextthat harborsmeaning," flectingwitha primaryemphasis on feeling.In the whichis a shared space thatis the foundationfor E region the learning process integratesfeeling knowledgecreation."Knowledgeis embedded in and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on reflect- ba, where it is then acquired throughone's own on theexperiencesofoth- ing. In the S regionlearnersintegrateactingand experienceorreflections reflecting witha primaryemphasis on thinking. In ers" (Nonaka & Konno, 1998:40). Knowledge em- feel- the W regionthe learningprocess integrates bedded inba is tacitand can onlybe made explicit ing and thinkingwitha primaryemphasis on ac- throughsharingof feelings,thoughts,and experi- tion.In thecentralregionlearnerstake an integra- ences of persons in the space. For this to happen tive approach to learning that balances feeling, theba space requiresthatindividualsremovebar- riersbetweenone anotherin a climatethatempha- thinking, acting,and reflecting. sizes "care,love,trust,and commitment." The ELT learningspace conceptemphasizesthat Learning spaces similarlyrequire normsof psychological learningis notone universalprocessbuta map of learning territories, a frameof referencewithin safety,serious purpose, and respect to promote learning. whichmanydifferent ways oflearningcan flourish In ELTtheexperientiallearningspace is defined and interrelate.It is a holisticframework thatori- bytheattracting and repellingforces(positiveand ents the many different ways of learningto one another.As Lewin put it, negative valences) of the two poles of the dual dialectics of action/reflection and experiencing/ conceptualizing,creating a two-dimensional map of the regionsof the learningspace. Individuals' Actually,the termlearningrefersto a multi- learningstyle positionsthemin one of these re- tude of different phenomena.The statement, "Democracy, one has to learn, autocracyis gions depending on the equilibrium of forces among action, reflection,experiencing,and con- imposed on the person,"refersto one typeof ceptualizing.As withtheconceptoflifespace, this learning.Ifone says thatthespastic childhas positionis determinedby a combinationof indi- to learn to relax one is speakingofa different vidual dispositionand characteristicsofthelearn- type of learning. Both types probablyhave ingenvironment. The LSI measuresan individual's verylittleto do withlearningFrenchvocabu- preference fora particularregionof the learning lary,and thistypeagain has littleto do with space, that individual's"homeregion"so to speak. learningto like spinach.Have we any rightto Learners'scoreson theLSI place themin one ofthe classify learning to high-jump,to get along nine regionsdepictedin Figure2, each ofwhichis withalcohol, and to be friendlywithpeople associated witha specificprocessoflearningfrom underthe same term,and to expectidentical experience.These regionsare named forthepoints laws toholdforany oftheseprocesses?(Cited of the compass and are divided into specialized in Cartwright, 1951:65). This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 201 Experientiallearningcan be viewed as a pro- dentdevelopmentworkshops,and facultydevelop- cess of locomotionthroughthe learning regions mentseminars(A.Kolb& Lingham2002;Eickmann, that is influencedby a person's position in the A. Kolb, & D. Kolb, 2003). The Case programto learningspace. Researchusing theAdaptiveStyle enhance experientiallearningin the undergradu- Inventory(ASI; Boyatzis& Kolb, 1993)has shown ate curriculuminvolves longitudinaloutcomeas- thatindividualsvaryin theirabilityto moveabout sessment,curriculumdevelopment,facultydevel- the learningspace fromtheirhome region(e.g.,a opment,and studentdevelopment. personscoringin thesouthernregionmovingfrom the thinking-oriented southernregionto the feel- northern ComparingLearningStylesofCase Management ing-oriented region)and thatthiscapac- and CIA ArtStudents ity adapt flexibly changinglearningcontexts to to is related to higherstages of adult development Figures 3 and 4 show how the learningstyles of (Kolb,1984,chap. 8). One's positionin thelearning managementand art studentsare distributedin space defines that person's experience and thus thelearningregions.Artstudentsare concentrated definestheir"reality".Lewin stresses the impor- in the feeling-orientednorthernregions of the tance foreducationofdefiningthe learningspace learning space, while managementstudentsare in termsofthe learner'sexperience: concentratedin the thinking-oriented southernre- gions. Forty-twopoint one percent of art students One ofthebasic characteristics offieldtheory are in the northernregions,while 23.6%are in the in psychology,as I see it,is the demand that south.Forty-five point seven percentof manage- the field which influences an individual ment studentsare in the southernregions with shouldbe describednotin objectivephysical- 21.2% in the north.More art studentsare in the istic terms,but in the way that it exists for easternregionsthanin thewesternregions(35.2% that person at that time... A teacher will to 26.3%).More managementstudentsare in the neversucceed in givingproperguidance to a westernregionsthanin theeasternregions(36.3% child if he does not learn to understandthe to 30.4%).Amongartstudentsthe SW regionis the psychological world in which that child least populated (3.7%),while the least-populated lives... To substituteforthat world of the regionformanagementstudentsis the NE (5.1%). individual the world of the teacher,of the Ten pointtwopercentofmanagementstudentsare physicist,or ofanybodyelse is to be, notob- in the balancing centralregion,while 12.5%ofart jective,but wrong(Cited in Cartwright, 1951: studentsare there.Boyatzisand Mainemelisfound 62). significantcorrelationsbetweenabstractlearning styles and grades and GMAT indicatinga bias toward abstraction in evaluation and selection LEARNING SPACES IN HIGHER EDUCATION practices.For BFA graduates,therewas no rela- To illustratethe concept of learning space, we tionshipbetweengrades and learningstyle. presentdata showing the distributionof student learningstylesin threeinstitutions ofhigheredu- cation that are engaged in ComparingLearningSpaces in Managementand longitudinalinstitu- the Arts tionaldevelopmentprogramsto promotelearning: the Case Weatherhead School of Management Our observationsof the way the educational pro- MBAprogram,theCleveland InstituteofArtunder- cess is conductedin art schools and management graduateprogram,and the Case WesternReserve schools reveal some strikingdifferencesthatgive Universityundergraduate program. The Case insightintothe natureof learningin the different Weatherheadinstitutionaldevelopmentprogram, learningregions.Dewey's distinctionbetweenar- reportedin Innovationin ProfessionalEducation: tisticand scientificlearninghelps us understand Steps on a JourneyFrom Teaching to Learning the differencebetween the kinds of learningthat (Boyatzis,Cowen, & Kolb 1995),focusedon curric- occurin arteducationand in managementeduca- ulumdevelopment,studentdevelopment,and lon- tion: gitudinaloutcomeassessment(Boyatzis,Stubbs,& Taylor,2002).MBA studentlearningstyle data is The rhythm of loss of integrationwithenvi- fromBoyatzisand Mainemelis(2000).The program ronmentand recoveryof union not onlyper- at the Cleveland InstituteofArtis partofa longi- sistsin man,butbecomesconsciouswithhim; tudinalstudyofartisticlearningconductedby the its conditionsare material out of which he Ohio Consortiumon Artisticlearninginvolvinga formspurposes.Emotionis theconscioussign longitudinalstudyof artisticlearningstyles,stu- of a break,actual or impending.The discord This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 202 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June CONCRETE EXPERIENCE NW N NE Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 10.1% 6% 5.1% ACTIVE AIg ^ J*^ REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + ReflectingFeeling-Thinking Acting OBSERVATION Thinking 13.5% 10.2% 9.3% SW S SE Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 12.7% 17% 16% ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE3 LearningStyles MBAStudents(N = 1286) of is theoccasionthatinducesreflection. Desire tive remotenessof his end, the scientific forrestoration of the unionconvertsmere workeroperateswithsymbols,words,and emotionintointerest in objectsas conditions mathematical signs.Theartistdoeshisthink- of realizationof harmony. Withthe realiza- ing in theveryqualitativemediahe worksin, tion,material ofreflection is incorporated into and thetermslie so closetotheobjectthathe objects as their meaning. Since the artist is producing thattheymergedirectly intoit cares in a peculiarway forthephase ofex- (Dewey, 1934: 15-16). periencein whichunionis achieved,he does notshunmoments ofresistanceand tension. awarenessofdifferences A first in themanage- He rathercultivatesthem,notfortheirown mentand artslearningspaces came as we were sake but because of their potentialities, preparinga learningstyleworkshop forart stu- bringing to livingconsciousnessan experi- dents.We asked whatreadingswe shouldgive encethatis unified and total.Incontrast with and theprovost, Paul Eickmann, said,"Youknow, thepersonwhosepurposeis esthetic, thesci- forartstudentslearningis nottextdriven."This entificmanis interested in problems, in situ- stoodin dramaticcontrast withmanagement edu- ationswhereintensionbetweenthematter of cation,whichis almostentirely organizedaround observationand of thoughtis marked.Of textsthatdeliveran authoritative dis- scientific coursehe cares fortheirresolution. Buthe course.The scientific basis of the management does notrestin it; he passes on to another curriculum was establishedin 1959byan influen- problem usingan attainedsolutiononlyas a tialCarnegieFoundation report thatsoughttoim- steppingstoneon whichtoseton footfurther prove the intellectualrespectability of manage- inquires. menteducationbygrounding itin threescientific Thedifference betweentheesthetic andthe disciplines:economics, mathematics, and behav- intellectualis thusone of the place where ioralscience. emphasisfalls in the constantrhythm that The text-drivenapproachofmanagement edu- markstheinteraction ofthelivecreature with cation contrastswiththe experientiallearning hissurroundings... Becauseofthecompara- process of demonstration-practice-production- This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 203 CONCRETE EXPERIENCE NW N NE Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 13.8% 17.2% 11.1% ACTIVE Ac*g pJLg RefiLg REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + Reflecting Feeling-Thinking Acting OBSERVATION Thinking 8.8% 12.5% 13% SW S SE Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 3.7% 8.8% 11.1% ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE 4 Learning Style Distributionof CIA Graduating Students (N = 216) critiquethatis used in mostartclasses (see Table spenton studentperformance, mostofwhichoc- 1).Thisprocessis repeatedrecursively in artedu- curson testsand papers.In artclasses, thema- cation,while management education is primarily jorityofthetimeis spenton studentexpression witheach topiccoveredin a linearse- discursive, of ideas and skills. Arteducationtends to be quence withlittlerecursiverepetition. Manage- withsmall classes and individ- individualized, menteducationfocuseson telling;arteducation ual attention,while managementeducationis emphasizes showing. Managementeducation organizedintolarge classes withlimitedindi- tendsto emphasizetheory; arteducationempha- vidualizedattention.An assistant dean at the sizesintegrationoftheoryand practice. Arteduca- ColumbusCollege of Artand Design who ma- tionfocusesonthelearners'inside-out expression; joredin musicas an undergraduate and latergot management educationon outside-in impression. an MBA,contrasted the3 hoursa weekhe spent Mosttimein managementclasses is spentcon- in individualtutorialwithhis mentorwiththe veyinginformation with relativelylittle time shockhe experiencedin enteringa tieredMBA classroomof200students.Finally,arteducation TABLE 1 tendstobe represented byfacultymemberswith Comparison of Arts Education and Management diverse learningstyles,whereas management Education education tends to favor specialized faculty memberswitha primarily abstractlearningori- ArtsEducation ManagementEducation entation. Aesthetic Scientific Demo-practice-production-critique Textdriven LongitudinalLocomotion in theArtsLearning Recursive Discursive Theoryand practice Theory Space Showing Telling LongitudinalLSI scoresfromCIA studentsat the Expression Individualized Impression Batched beginningoftheirfreshman andjunioryearsshow Diversefaculty Abstractfaculty a significant movement amongstudentsfromthe reflective easternregionsto the active western This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 204 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June regions,perhaps indicatingstudentgrowthand Skill Developmentand LearningRegions developmenttoward a more active role in their own learningas a resultoftheempowering, active Table 3 shows the relationshipbetween the posi- structure ofthe CIA learningenvironment (see Ta- tionofCase freshmenin the learningregionsand ble 2). Longitudinalstudies ofLSI changes among theirlearningskills as measured by the Learning undergraduates in Alverno College's program, Skills Profile.Five of the 12 learning skill areas which emphasizes competency development show significantF values. All three conceptual throughactive experientiallearning,show similar skill areas, TheoryBuilding,QuantitativeAnaly- movementfromthe reflectiveto active learning sis, and Technologyskills show significantdiffer- regionsacross thefreshmanto senioryears (Ment- ences among regions.Tukeyand Scheffetestsin- kowski& Strait1983;Mentkowskiand Associates, dicate thattheoryskills are highestin the S and 2000). SW and lowestin theNE region.Quantitativeanal- ysis skills are highestin the S and lowest in the NW,N, and NE regions.Amongthe interpersonal skillareas, onlyhelp skillswere significant across LearningStylesofCase Undergraduates regions, with the NW higher significantly than the of Case freshmen S region.In the action skills area, only initiative Figure5 shows the distribution in thelearningregions.As mightbe expectedfrom skills were significantwiththe NW area signifi- a researchuniversityliberal arts programwitha cantlyhigherthantheE, SE, and C regions.Noneof theinformation skillareas weresignificantamong strongemphasis on science and engineering,the regions. patternof LSI scores shows a distributionacross the learning regions that is similar to the Case MBA programin its emphasis on the abstract southernregions.Forty-nine percentofCase fresh- Summary men are positioned in the southernregions (vs. The portraitsof institutionallearningspaces pre- 47.5%MBAs) and 16.8%of the freshmenare in the sented above suggest thatstudentlearningstyle northern regions(vs. 21.2%MBAs).As withtheMBA scores may be a way to describe the institutional students,there are significantcorrelationsbe- learningspaces experiencedby students.In par- tweenabstractselectioncriteria,(SAT scores),and ticularthecomparisonbetweentheobservededu- abstractLSI scores (r =.32). However,the Case cational programsand teaching methodsof CIA freshmen are moresimilarto theCIA graduatesin arts education and Case MBA education seems theirdistributionin the eastern and westernre- consistentwith respective student LSI distribu- pointfivepercentof Case fresh- gions. Thirty-five tionsin the nine-regionlearningspace, withMBA men are in the eastern regions (vs. 35.2% CIA). studentsprimarilyin the southernthinkingand Twenty-three pointthreepercentofCase freshmen westernacting regions,and arts studentsfalling are in thewesternregions(vs. 26.3%CIA). The NW mainlyin the northern feelingand easternreflec- is theleast populatedlearningregion(3.5%),while tionregions.The corresponding discursive,telling, theS regionhas thegreatestnumberofCase fresh- educational methodsofthe MBAprogramand the men (19.4%). recursive,showing,techniques of the art school TABLE2 Year CIA Students'LearningStyleat the Beginningofthe Freshmanand Junior Freshman(2000) (2001) Junior LSI Scores n M SD M SD ta Experiencing(CE) 77 26.31 6.07 26.87 6.64 -0.66 (RO) Reflecting 77 31.36 6.56 29.23 7.00 2.42** Conceptualizing(AC) 77 28.88 6.28 29.34 7.47 -0.54 Acting(AE) 77 32.88 6.48 34.56 6.80 -1.95* AC-CE 77 2.57 9.97 2.47 11.88 0.08 AE-RO 77 1.52 11.40 5.32 11.56 -2.61** a Significancelevels are forpaired sample t testsas two-tailedtests. *p <.05.**p <.01. This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 205 CONCRETE EXPERIENCE NW N NE Feeling-Acting Feeling Feeling-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 3.5% 6.7% 6.6% ACTIVE Alg FeJfag J*^ REFLECTIVE EXPERIMENTATION Feeling-Thinking + ActingReflecting Feeling-Thinking OBSERVATION Thinking 7.6% 14.2% 11.5% SW S SE Thinking-Acting Thinking Thinking-Reflecting Acting-Reflecting 12.2% 19.4% 17.4% ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION FIGURE 5 Case 2002 Undergraduate Freshman LSI Distribution (N = 288) recall Dewey's descriptionofthe scientificworker lyticskills makes sense in that its mission is to who "operates with symbols,words and mathe- prepare studentsforcareers thatrequireabstrac- matical signs" and the artistwho "does his think- tionand analysis. However,to learn skills outside ing in the veryqualitativemedia he worksin." of theirhome region,learners need to move to The verysimilarlearningspace distributions of otherregionsand thelearningprocessforany skill Case undergraduateand MBA studentssuggest requirestheabilityto movethroughtheexperienc- theinstitutional exosysteminfluenceoftheuniver- ing,reflecting, thinking,and actingcycle.To fully sity'sresearchmissionand cultureon thelearning develop thewhole personrequiresan educational spaces experiencedbystudents.Bothstudentsand culturethatpromotesdiverselearningspaces and facultyare selected for their abstract learning locomotionamong them. skills, so it is not surprisingthat the university learningspaces would predominatein the south- CREATING LEARNING SPACES FOR THE ernregions. ENHANCEMENT OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING As the undergraduatedata on learning skills and learningregionssuggest,the nine regionsof The enhancement of experiential learning in the experiential learning space are associated highereducationcan be achieved throughthecre- withspecificlearningprocesses.The learningpro- ation of learning spaces that promotegrowth- cesses in each regionare in turnmosteffective for producingexperiencesforlearners.A centralcon- theachievementofcertainlearningoutcomes.For cept in Dewey's educational philosophy is the example,thefeeling-oriented northernregionsare continuumofexperiencein whichexperiencesthat most effectivefor learning interpersonalskills, promoteor inhibitlearningare arrayed."The be- while the thinking-oriented southernregions are lief that all genuine education comes about mosteffectiveforlearninganalyticand quantita- throughexperiencedoes notmean thatall experi- tive skills. Individuals' learning styles represent ences are genuinelyeducative... For some expe- their preferencesfor particular regions of the riencesare mis-educative.Anyexperienceis mis- learningspace, theirhomebases so to speak. That educative that has the effectof arresting or Case specializes in education forabstract,ana- distortingthe growthof furtherexperience... This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 206 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June g.S 82S8£gg833 § 828£2SfcS88 I h J2* 5 d coco^c^c^ooodirJioco IS.2B.a I a.S3 ho ^ioioio(DC^od(Din-i d S o d NNNNNNNNN g s^ §& i ^1 I S §* 8S5?2g5iS|5;S^S I I t B 2 I B 552822SS3S8S v 3 H wv b Sc32g?S33?SS5! t-0" I 3; 1 i 1 1 I Js IIIIIIII^ &a This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 207 Hencethecentralproblemofan educationbased workswhichcannotbe erasedby a teacher'sco- onexperience is toselectthekindofpresentexpe- gent explanation.Instead the effectiveteacher and creativelyin sub- riencesthatlive fruitfully builds on exploration of what studentsalready sequent experiences"(Dewey, 1938: 25-28).A knowand believe,onthesensetheyhavemadeof numberofeducationalprinciplesflowfromthis theirpreviousconcreteexperiences.Beginning philosophy. withtheseorrelatedconcrete experiencesallows thelearnerto re-examine and modifytheirprevi- ous sensemaking in lightofthenewideas. RespectforLearnersand TheirExperience A growth-producing experiencein thephilosophy notonlytoa direct Creatingand Holdinga Hospitable Space for ofexperientiallearningrefers relatedto a understudy Learning experience subjectmatter butalso to thetotalexperiential lifespace ofthe To learnrequiresfacingand embracing differenc- learner.Thisincludesthelearner'sphysicaland es; whethertheybe differences betweenskilled social environment and qualityof relationships. expertperformance and one'snovicestatus,differ- We referto thisas the cheers/jeers experiential encesbetweendeeplyheldideas and beliefsand continuum. Atone end learnersfeelthattheyare newideas,ordifferences inthelifeexperience and members ofa learningcommunity whoare known values of othersthatcan lead to understanding and respectedby facultyand colleagues and them.These differences can be challengingand whose experienceis taken seriously,a space threatening, a requiring learningspace thaten- "whereeverybody knowsyourname."Attheother courages the expressionof differences and the extremeare "mis-educative" learningenviron- psychological to safety support the learner in fac- mentswherelearnersfeelalienated,alone,unrec- ing these challenges(Sanford,1966). As Robert ognized,anddevalued.Learning andgrowth inthe Kegansays,"peoplegrowbestwheretheycontin- jeers environment "where nobody knows your uouslyexperience an ingenious blendofchallenge name"can be difficult ifnotimpossible. Whilethis and support"(1994:42).As Kegan impliesby his principlemayseemobviousoreven"preachy," it use ofthetermingenious blend,creating andhold- is problematicforeventhefinesteducationalin- ing thislearningspace is noteasy. He notes that PresidentLawrenceSummersof Har- stitutions. while educationalinstitutions have been quite varddedicatedhis2003commencement addressto successfulinchallenging students,theyhavebeen the introductionofa comprehensive examination muchless successfulin providingsupport.One oftheundergraduate program, motivated in part reasonforthismaybe thatchallengestendtobe by a letter he received from a top science student specificand immediate, while supportmustgo whichcontained thestatement, "I am intheeighth beyond an immediate "You-can-do-it" statement. of semester college and there is nota singlesci- Creatingand holdinga learningspace requiresa ence professor here who could identify me by climateor cultureofsupportthatthelearnercan name."Summersconcludes:"Theonlytruemea- trustto "hold"themovertime.In Conversational sureofa successfuleducationalmodelis ourstu- Learning(Baker, Jensen, & Kolb,2002),we drawon dents'experience ofit"(Summers, 2003:64). the worksof HenriNouwen(1975)and Parker Palmer(1983,1990,1998)todescribethischalleng- ingand supportive learningspace as onethatwel- BeginLearningWiththe Learner'sExperienceof comesthestranger in a spiritofhospitality where the SubjectMatter "studentsand teacherscan enterintoa fearless To learnexperientially learnersmustfirstof all communication witheach otherand allow their ownand value theirexperience. Studentswillof- life respective experiences tobe theirprimary and tensay, "ButI don't have anyexperience," mean- mostvaluable sourceofgrowth and maturation" ingthattheydon't believe thattheirexperienceis (Nouwen,1975:60). of any value to the teacher or for learningthe subjectmatter at hand.Thenewscienceoflearn- Brown, & Cocking2000)is based on MakingSpace forConversationalLearning ing(Bransford, thecognitiveconstructivist theoriesofPiagetand Humanbeingsnaturally makemeaningfrom their that Vygotsky emphasize that people construct experiencesthrough conversation. Yet genuine newknowledge andunderstanding from whatthey conversationin thetraditional lectureclassroom alreadyknow and believe,based on theirprevious can be extremelyrestricted ornonexistent.Atthe experience.Zull (2002)suggeststhat this prior breakorend oftheclass thesometimes painfully knowledgeexistsin the brainas neuronalnet- silentclassroomwill suddenlycome alive with This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 208 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June spontaneousconversationamong students.Signif- sions maybe so relatedto factsthattheirvalue is icant learning can occur in these conversations, tested and organized" (1934: 45). Yet many pro- althoughit may not always be the learning the gramsin highereducationare muchmorefocused teacherintended.Making space forgood conver- on impressinginformationon the mind of the sation as partofthe educational process provides learner than on opportunitiesforthe learners to theopportunity forreflectionon and meaningmak- expressand testin actionwhattheyhave learned. ing about experiencesthat improvethe effective- Many courses will spend 15 weeks requiringstu- ness ofexperientiallearning(Keeton,Sheckley,& dentsto take in volumesofinformation and onlya Griggs 2002;Bunker1999).For example, the cre- couple ofhours expressing and testingtheirlearn- ation of learning teams as part of a course pro- ing, often on a multiple-choice exam. This is in motes effectivelearning when psychologically contrastto arts educationbuilton the demonstra- safe conditionsare present (Wyss-Flamm,2002). tion-practice-critiqueprocess where active ex- ConversationalLearningpresentsthe dimensions pressionand testingare continuouslyinvolvedin of spaces that allow forgood conversation.It is the learningprocess. Zull (2002)suggests thatac- morelikelyto occurin spaces thatintegratethink- tionmaybe themostimportant partofthelearning ing and feeling,talkingand listening,leadership cycle because it closes the cycle by bringingthe and solidarity,recognitionofindividualityand re- inside worldofreflection and thoughtintocontact latedness,and discursiveand recursiveprocesses. withthe outside worldof experiencescreated by When the conversationalspace is dominatedby action (cf. Dewey, 1897). Keeton, Sheckley and one extremeof these dimensions,for example, Gross (2002)proposeanotherlevel ofaction/reflec- talkingwithoutlistening,conversationallearning tion integration,emphasizing the importanceof is diminished. active reflectionin deepeninglearningfromexpe- rience. MakingSpace forDevelopmentofExpertise Withvast knowledgebases in everyfieldthatare MakingSpaces forFeeling and Thinking ever changingand growing,many highereduca- We have seen a polarizationbetweenfeelingand tioncurriculaconsistofcourseaftercourse "cover- thinkingin the contrast between the feeling- ing" a series of topics in a relativelysuperficial orientedlearningspace ofCIA artseducationand factualway. Yet as theNationalResearchCouncil the thinking-orientedlearningspaces ofthe Case in its reporton thenew science oflearningrecom- undergraduateand MBA programs.It seems that mendson thebasis ofresearchon expertlearners, educationalinstitutions todevelop a learning tend effective learningrequiresnotonlyfactualknowl- culturethat emphasizes the learningmode most edge, but theorganizationofthese factsand ideas related to theireducational objectivesand to de- in a conceptual framework and the abilityto re- value the opposite learning mode. Yet, Damasio trieveknowledgeforapplication and transferto (1994,2003),LeDoux (1997),Zull (2002),and others different contexts(Bransford,Brown,& Cocking offerconvincingresearch evidence that reason 2000).Such deep learningis facilitatedby deliber- and emotionare inextricably relatedin theirinflu- ate, recursivepracticeon areas thatare relatedto ence on learningand memory.Indeed it appears the learner's goals (Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs thatfeelingsand emotionshave primacyin deter- 2002).The process of learningdepicted in the ex- miningwhetherand whatwe learn.Negativeemo- perientiallearningcycle describes this recursive tionssuch as fearand anxietycan blocklearning, spiral ofknowledgedevelopment.Space needs to while positive feelingsof attractionand interest be createdin curriculaforstudentsto pursuesuch may be essential forlearning.To learn something deep experientiallearningin orderto develop ex- thatone is notinterestedin is extremelydifficult. pertiserelatedto theirlifepurpose. Negative emotionssuch as fearand MakingSpaces forActingand Reflecting anxietycan block learning,while Learningis like breathing;it involvesa takingin positivefeelingsof attractionand and processingofexperienceand a puttingout or interestmay be essential forlearning. expressionof what is learned. As Dewey noted, "nothingtakes rootin mindwhen thereis no bal- ance betweendoing and receiving.Some decisive MakingSpace forInside-OutLearning actionis needed in orderto establish contactwith David Hunt(1987,1991)describesinside-out learning therealitiesoftheworldand in orderthatimpres- as a processofbeginningwithoneselfinlearningby This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2005 Kolb and Kolb 209 focusingon one's experiencedknowledge,thatis, their own learning by understandinghow they the implicittheories,metaphors,interests,desires learn best and the skills necessary to learn in and goals thatguide experience.Makingspace for regions that are uncomfortableforthem.Work- inside-outlearningby linkingeducationalexperi- shops on experientiallearningand learningstyles ences to thelearner'sinterestskindlesintrinsic mo- can help studentstodevelop meta-cognitive learn- tivationand increaseslearningeffectiveness.Under ing skills. At CIA and the Case undergraduate thepropereducationalconditions, a sparkofintrin- programs,studentworkshopshelp studentsinter- sic interest intoa flameofcommitted can be nurtured prettheirLSI scores and understandhow to use lifepurpose(Dewey,1897).Yet learningspaces that this information to improvetheirlearning effec- emphasizeextrinsicrewardcan driveout intrinsi- tiveness. JohnReese at the Universityof Denver cally motivatedlearning(Deci & Ryan,1985;Kohn Law School conducts"ConnectingwiththeProfes- 1993;Ryan& Deci, 2000).Longago Deweydescribed sor"workshopsin whichstudentsselectone offour the trendtowardemphasis on extrinsicrewardin teaching styles based on the fourpredominant educationand theconsequencesfortheteacherwho learningstylesthattheyhave difficultyconnecting wieldsthecarrotand stick: with. The workshopgives multipleexamples of remedialactions thatthe learnermay take to cor- Thus in education we have that systematic rect the misconnectioncreated by differencesin depreciation of interest which has been teaching and learning styles.Peer group discus- noted... Thus we have the spectacle of sions among law studentsgive an opportunity to professional educators decryingappeal to create new ideas about how to get the mostfrom interestwhile they uphold with great dig- professorswith differentlearning and teaching nity the need of reliance upon examina- styles(Reese, 1998). tions, marks, promotions and emotions, prizes and the time honoredparaphernalia of rewards and punishments.The effectof PROMOTING LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION this situation in crippling the teacher's THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT sense of humorhas not received the atten- To implementthese educational learning space tion which it deserves (1916:336). principlesrequires a holisticprogramof institu- tional developmentthat includes curriculumde- MakingSpace forLearnersto Take Charge of velopment,facultydevelopment,studentdevelop- TheirOwn Learning ment,administrativeand staffdevelopment,and resource development.Programsin these areas Manystudentsenterhighereducationconditioned need to be coordinatedaroundan institutional vi- by theirprevious educational experiences to be sion and missionto promotelearning.Such a co- passive recipientsofwhattheyare taught.Making ordinatedinstitutionalapproach can providethe space forstudentsto take controlofand responsi- synergynecessary for dramatic organizational bilityfortheirlearningcan greatlyenhance their change,while fragmented approaches in one area abilityto learn fromexperience.Some authorsuse are oftenfrustrated lack of interestor under- thetermself-authorship to describethisprocess of by standing in others. One can develop a state ofthe constructingone's own knowledge versus pas- art learning-focusedcurriculumthatis doomed to sivelyreceivingknowledgefromothers,consider- failureiffacultymembersare noton board withit ing self-authorshipto be a majoraim ofeducation philosophicallyand technically.If administrative (Kegan, 1994; King, 2003; Baxter-Magolda,1999). Othersdescribe this goal as increasingstudents' leadership has prioritiesfocused on income and ratings,the resourcesforlearningpromotionwill capacity forself-direction(Boyatzis,1994;Robert- notbe available in otherdevelopmentalareas. son, 1988).The ManagementDevelopmentand As- sessmentcoursein theCase MBAprogramaims to develop studentself-direction throughassessment By developing theireffectiveness as and feedbackon learningskillsand competencies and thedevelopmentofa learningplan to achieve learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs, each student'scareer/lifegoals (Boyatzis,1994). 2002),studentscan be empoweredto take Bransford, Brown,and Cocking(2002)argue forthe responsibilityfortheirown learningby developmentof meta-cognitiveskills to promote understandinghow theylearn best and active learning.By developingtheireffectiveness the skillsnecessaryto learn in regions as learners(Keeton,Sheckley,& Griggs,2002),stu- thatare uncomfortable forthem. dentscan be empoweredto take responsibility for This content downloaded from 206.87.46.46 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 12:01:22 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 210 AcademyofManagementLearning& Education June in Professional In thelast chapterofInnovation vision thatstartswitha commitment to experien- Educationtitled"WhatifLearningWerethePur- tial learningwithrigorousscholarshipin under- pose ofEducation" Cowen,& Kolbf1995), (Boyatzis, graduate, graduate and professional education we proposedfivedesignprinciples tohelpeduca- programstoproduceeducated learners- educated focuson thepromotion tionalinstitutions oflearn- learners who are awake to new possibilities" ing. (Campus News,2003:2). To support thenewSAGEScurriculum, Case has 1. Evaluationofeducationalstructuresand pro- launcheda 5-yearfaculty development program to cesses againstpromotionoflearningcriteria. be organizedand deliveredthrough CenterforIn- 2. Longitudinal outcomestudiesto determine learning valueadded. novationin Teachingand Education(UCITE).Ac- 3. Becoming institution. a learner-centered cordingto theplan ofthisprogram, a totalof80 4. Continuousresearchand inquiryabout the facultymembersacross the university will un- learningprocess. dergoan intensedevelopment onhowtodevelopa 5. Becominga learningorganizationthrough courseorothereducationalexperiences continuous conversation. stakeholder particular based onexperiential learningovertheperiodof5 The institutionaldevelopmentprogramto pro- years.In thisprogram, faculty members meetreg- moteexperientiallearninginitiatedbyCase West- ularlyto discuss the philosophyof experiential ernReserveUniversity (Case) providesan example learning,themethodsofimplementation thatre- ofthisholisticapproach.In October2000the Case spondto theneeds oftheindividualschoolsand presidentand provostcreatedthePresident'sCom- departments, thecoursestructure thatneedstobe missionon UndergraduateEducationand Life.The putinplace,theteachingmethods thatlendthem- Commission's report recommended that Case selvestomeeting thegoals,and assessmenttech- adopt a philosophyof experientiallearning,en- niques.Inan effort tocoordinate and support such capsulated in the mission/value statement that university-wide institutionaldevelopment initia- "CWRUgraduates studentswho have discovered tives,the new presidentcreatedthe Centerfor and are realizing theirown uncommonpotential InstitutionalResearch(CIR),a collaborative effort through the University'suniquely transformative toexpand institutional research support forall sec- environment and its philosophythateducation is torsoftheuniversity. Itsprimary roleis toprovide best accomplished throughexperience" (Presi- information about the university's students, fac- dent'sCommission,2001:2). Buildingon the Com- ulty,staff,programs and environment to support missionreport, universityfacultydeveloped an ex- decisionmaking, policyanalysis,institutional as- perimental undergraduate curriculum called sessment, and strategicplanning. The Case initia- Seminar Approachto General Education Studies tivetoenhanceexperiential learningintheunder- (SAGES).The SAGES 2-yearpilotprogramwas cre- graduate curriculumintegratinginstitutional ated as part of curriculumrevisionof the under- development activitiesthrough a leadership vision graduate General Education Requirements (GER) serves as an example forthe creation of educa- of College of Artsand Sciences proposed by the tionallearningspaces thatpromotelearningin commission.Followingtheproposednew GER rec- highereduca