IS-PRELIM-NOTES.docx

**Information System** An information system (IS) is a **collection of hardware, software, data, procedures, and people** that work together to **provide information necessary for the functioning of an organization**. It **encompasses a wide range of technologies and processes that manage and manip...

**Information System** An information system (IS) is a **collection of hardware, software, data, procedures, and people** that work together to **provide information necessary for the functioning of an organization**. It **encompasses a wide range of technologies and processes that manage and manipulate data into meaningful information for various users.** **Data Vs Technology** \* Data: **Raw facts or figures** \* Information: **Data processed into a meaningful context** **IT vs IS** \* IT: **Tools and technology used for managing data (computers, software)** \* IS: **Application, Organized System that uses IT to collect, process, store, and distribute information** **Attributes** \* Accuracy: Info should be **free from errors and should reflect reality as closely as possible**. \* Relevance: Info should be **pertinent to the task or decision at hand**. \* Timeliness: Info should be **available when needed to be effective**. \* Completeness: Info should **provide a full picture of the subject matter**. \* Reliability: Info should be **dependable and consistent**. **Frameworks of Info Systems** \* Frameworks: Various frameworks help conceptualize and structure Info Systems.Three common frameworks are: \* Five Components Framework: Includes hardware, software, data, procedures, and people (Developed by **Peter Sange**) **Information systems pyramid:** \- this framework categorizes information systems into three levels: operational, managerial, and executive, based on their role in the organization. **Strategic information systems framework:** Focuses on aligning IS with an organizations strategic goals and competitive advantage. **Components of the Five Components Framework** 1. **Hardware**: **Physical devices like computers, servers, and networking equipment**. 2. **Software**: **Programs and applications** that enable data processing and manipulation. 3. **Data**: **Raw facts and figures** that serve as the foundation for information. 4. **Procedures**: **Sets of instructions or protocols** for handling data and making decisions. 5. **People**: **Users, Analysts, developers,** and other personnel involved in the IS lifecycle. **History of Computing** **Early Computing Device** **Abacus** (2300 BCE): Made from Mesopotamia, **used to perform arithmetic operations**. **Babbage Analytical Engine** \* 19th-century **mechanical computer capable of performing complex calculations**. \* **Ada Lovelace:** **Helped to develop the analytical engine.** **Early Punch Card** \* **Method of data processing invented by Herman Hollerith**. \* **Applied to the 1890 US Census**. **Evolution of Computer/Computing** **First Generation** (1940s-1950s) (**Vacuum tube**, large amount of space for single unit) **ENIAC (1945)** - **Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer** - was worlds **first general purpose digital computer**. Its is **used vacuum tubes and could perform a wide range of calculations**, including **ballistics calculations for the military**. Developed by **John Eckert and John Mauchly.** **UNIVAC** - 1951, **Universal Automatic Computer l**, was the **first commericially produced computer**. It played a role in the **1952 presidential election by accurately predicting the outcome**. **Second Generation (1950s - 1960s)** \* **Transition from vacuum tubes to transistors**: Resulting in smaller, faster, and more reliable machines. **IBM 1401 (1959)** - This **widely used business computer contributed to the automation of data** processing taks making it accessible to a broader range of organizations. ( for business) **COBOL (1959)** - **Common Business-Oriented Language (COBOL**) made software more accessible, **allowing programmers to write code in a language closer to a natural language.** **Third Generation (1960s - 1970s)** \* **Advancements in integrated circuits and development of microprocessors.** **IBM system/360 (1964)** - The system/360 family **introduced compatibility across different models,** a concept that remains relevant in modern computing. **Intel 4004 (1971)** Its a **microprocessor marked the birth of microcomputing,** paving the way for personal computers. **Fourth Generation (1971-1980)** - **Emergence of personal computers and the widespread use of Microprocessors.** **IBM personal computer (1981):** The IBM PC became the industry standard and **led to the popularization of personal computing.** **World Wide Web (1989):** The Invention of WWW by **Tim Berners-Lee** **revolutionize communication and information sharing** **Evolution of Computing (Timeline)** \* **Abacus (3000 BC)**: An ancient manual computing device consisting of a frame with beads that slide along rods or in grooves, used for **performing arithmetic calculations**. \* **Napier Bones (1617)**: A mechanical calculating device invented by John Napier in 1617, **using rods with numbers printed on them to** **perform multiplication and division**. \* **Pascaline (1642):** The **first mechanical adding machine**, invented by **Blaise Pascal** in 1642, capable of **performing addition and subtraction**. \* **Leibniz Wheel:** A mechanical calculator invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1685, capable of **performing all four arithmetic operations**. \* **Mark I:** An **early electronic computer developed at Harvard University in 1944**, using relays and vacuum tubes. \* **Census Machine:** A **mechanical tabulating machine invented by Herman Hollerith** in 1889, used to process data from the 1890 U.S. Census. \* **Analytical Engine**: A mechanical general-purpose computer designed by Charles Babbage in 1833, considered a precursor to modern computers. \* **Jacquard Loom**: A weaving loom invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, **using punched cards to control the pattern of weaving**, which influenced the development of computer programming. **Milestone in Computer Science** **Fortran (1957)** - **John Backus** and his team created fortran, the **first high-level programming language**, **simplifying the process of writing code**. **C programming language** - Dennis ritchie **highly influential language** that Underlies many modern programming languages., , **Development of operating system** **UNIX (1969)** - Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and othere at Bell labs developed UNIX, which served as the **basis for many subsequent operating system.** **Microsoft Windows (1985)** - became **dominant** in the personal comp market. **Birth of Internet** **ARPANET (1969**) **Advanced Research Projects Agency Network** - The U.S Department of Defense created ARPANET, a **precursor to the modern internet** **World Wide Web** - The **development of web browsers**. And HTML by Tim Berners-Lee made the internet accessible to the public. **Impact of Computing in Society** **Business** - **The use of computers has revolutionized company processes by enabling the automation of jobs Like accounting, inventory control, and customer service.** - **E-commerce has thrived, enabling businesses to connect with a global client.** **Education** - **Computers have revolutionized education with e-learning platforms, online resources, and interactive educational software.** - **Access to information has been democratized, facilitating research and learning.** **Healthcare** - **Electronic health records (EHRs) have eased healthcare administration and enhanced patient care.** - **Medical imaging and diagnostic tools have advanced, assisting in the early discovery of disease.** **Entertainment** - **Computers have revolutionized the entertainment industry, enabling video games, digital art, and multimedia experiences.** - **Streaming services and digital distribution have transformed how we consume music, movies, and television.** **Contemporary Developments** **Blockchain** \- is **disrupting industries like finance and supply chain management**. Transparent and tamper-proof **Blockchain Tech** Decentralized, distributed ledger that stores the **record of ownership of digital assets**. **Quantum Computing** \- **Utilizing the ideas behind quantum physics**, new methods of information processing are made possible. Irs possible uses include drug discovery, optimization issues, and cryptography. Quantum computers could break **IOT - refers to a network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and other physical objects that are embedded with sensors, software, and network connectivity, allowing them to collect and share data.** **Cyber security -** Greater cyber security dangers come with more advanced technology. It is still difficult to secure sensitive data. **Development of OS** **\* UNIX (1969):** Developed by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, served as the **basis for many subsequent operating systems.** **\* Microsoft Windows (1985):** Became the **dominant operating system in the PC market**. **Computer Resource** **Components and Elements of Computer Resources** **Hardware** - Hardware comprises **physical devices such as central processing units (CPUs), memory**, storage devices, input/output peripherals, and network equipment. - Different types of hardware **serve specific functions within an organization's information systems,** from servers that host applications to end-user devices like desktop computers and smartphones. **Software** - Software **encompasses operating systems**, **application software**, and Middleware that enable hardware components to work together. - Distinguishing between system software (e.g., OS) and application Software (e.g., word processing, CRM) is essential. - The role of software in **managing hardware resources and facilitating Information processing is explored**. **Network** - Networks, including lans (local area networks) and Wans (wide area networks), **Connect hardware components and enable data exchange**. - Understanding network protocols, topologies, and security measures is crucial. - Modern advancements like Wireless networks and the Internet of things (iot) Impact information systems. **Data Storage** - Data storage systems **store and manage the vast amount of data** used by organizations. - Types of storage devices (e.g., hard drives, SSDs), databases, and data storage technologies are discussed. - Emphasis on data security, redundancy, and scalability in data storage solutions. **Evolution of Computer Resources** **Mainframes** - Mainframes were the **initial computing resources used for large-scale data processing**. - They were characterized by high processing power, reliability, and centralized control. - Mainframes **played a vital role in early information systems for tasks like accounting and inventory management**. **Personal Computers (PCs)** - The advent of PCs decentralized computing, empowering individual users. - PCs **facilitated personal productivity and led to the development of client-server architectures**. - The importance of desktop applications and graphical user interfaces (GUIs) in information systems. **Servers** - Server technology evolved to **support networked computing environments**. - Discussion on file servers, application servers, web servers, and their roles in modern information systems. - **Emphasis on scalability and redundancy in server architectures**. **Cloud Computing** - The paradigm shift towards cloud computing, where **resources are accessed remotely via the internet**. - Advantages of cloud computing, such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, and reduced IT infrastructure management. **Significance of Computer Resources in Information Systems** - The critical role of computer resources in information systems for data processing, decision-making, and communication. - The impact of resource allocation and management on the efficiency and effectiveness of an organization's operations. P A R A L L E L C O M P U T I N G : E N H A N C I N G P E R F O R M A N C E W I T H M U L T I - C O R E P R O C E S S O R S I N T R O D U C T I O N \- **Parallel computing** is a computational approach where **multiple tasks or processes are executed concurrently**, with the aim of achieving improved computational performance and efficiency. P A R A L L E L C O M P U T I N G : C O R E C O N C E P T S 1\. Parallelism Fundamentals Definition: **Parallel computing** is the **concurrent execution of multiple tasks** to achieve faster and more efficient computation. **Motivation**: Sequential computing **faces limitations in processing speed and scalability**, driving the need for Parallelism. 2\. Types of Parallelism **Task Parallelism**: **Dividing a problem into smaller tasks that can be executed simultaneously**. **Data Parallelism**: **Processing multiple data elements Concurrently**. **M U Lt I - C O R E P R O C E S S O R S : E N A B L I N G Pa R A L L E L I S M** 1\. **Architectural Features** **Multi-Core Processor Architecture**: **Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) or Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP) configurations**. **Shared Memory vs. Distributed Memory**: **Cores may share memory (SMP) or operate with separate memory (AMP)**. 2\. **Benefits of Multi-Core Processors** **Enhanced Performance**: **Execution of multiple threads or processes in parallel leads to improved performance**. **Energy Efficiency**: **Multi-core processors offer better performance per watt, reducing power consumption**. 3\. **Challenges** **Parallel Programming Complexity**: **Developing software that efficiently utilizes multiple cores requires expertise in parallel programming**. **Amdahl\'s Law**: **Highlights potential bottlenecks in Parallelization**. **PARALLEL PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES** 1\. **Shared Memory Parallelism** **Thread-Based Programming**: **Threads within a single process share memory, allowing for shared data structures and communication**. **OpenMP**: **A directive-based API simplifying the creation of multithreaded applications**. 2\. **Message Passing** **MPI (Message Passing Interface)**: \- **Facilitates communication among distributed processes via message passing, common in high- performance computing (HPC) and cluster computing**. 3\. **Data Parallelism** **SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data):** \- **Executes the same operation on multiple data elements simultaneously**. GPU Computing: **Leveraging Graphics Processing Units for data-parallel workloads using frameworks like CUDA and OpenCL**. **R E L E VA N C E I N T O D A Y \' S C O M P U T I N G L A N D S C A P E** 1\. **Scientific and High-Performance Computing (HPC)** \- Parallelism is **essential for complex simulations, scientific research, and weather forecasting**. 2\. **Big Data Analytics** \- Parallel processing **accelerates data analysis, enabling real-time decision-making in analytics and data-driven industries.** 3\. **Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning** \- **Training large AI models benefits from parallelism, reducing training times and enabling faster insights**. 4\. **Gaming and Graphics** \- **Multi-core processors and GPUs power immersive gaming experiences and complex 3D rendering.** 5\. **Web Services and Cloud Computing** \- Scalable, parallelized services are **vital for meeting the demands of cloud-based applications and web service** **Information System: The Role of Computer Resources in Supporting Organizational Processes** **Computer Resources** - **encompass hardware, software, networking, data storage, and IT services that drive organizational activities**. - These resources **play a crucial role in supporting various organizational processes**, including **decision-making, strategic initiatives, and operational management**. **Supporting Organizational Processes** \* **Operation Management**: **ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)** **systems, automated production lines, and data analysis tools enhance operational efficiency**. \* **Communication**: **Cloud services and collaboration platforms (like Slack, Microsoft Teams) enable seamless information sharing.** \* **CRM (Customer Relationship Management**): **Managing customer interactions**, improving service delivery, and **fostering long-term customer relationships**. **Information Systems and Organizational Processes** **Facilitating Decision Making**: \* **Data Analytics**: **Real-time data access enables informed and timely decision-making.** \* **Business Intelligence Tools**: Tools like **Power BI or Tableau** transform data into actionable insights. \* **Predictive Analytics**: **Forecasting tools and AI algorithms** help anticipate trends and customer needs. **Driving Strategic Initiatives**: \***Digital Transformation**: **Digital tools** help businesses stay competitive. \* **Innovation**: Computer resources support innovation through **simulation, 3D modeling, and prototyping**. \* **Globalization**: **Shared resources and global collaboration** enable companies to operate across borders. **Current Trends and Emerging Technologies** **Driving Strategic Initiatives** **2.1 AI** \* **Process Automation**: **Enhancing efficiency with robotic process automation (RPA) and machine learning algorithms**. \* **Data Analysis**: **Detecting patterns in large datasets for faster and more accurate decision-making**. \* **Personalization: Tailoring content and recommendations** to individual users for improved customer experiences. **Emerging Technologies:** **2.2 IoT (Internet of Things):** \* **Smart Manufacturing**: **Predictive maintenance for reduced downtime and increased productivity**. \* **Supply Chain Optimization**: **Real-time data for tracking products and reducing costs.** \* **Smart Cities**: **Enhancing urban living through smart infrastructure, energy management, and traffic monitoring**. **2.3 Edge Computing** **Reduced Latency**: **Enables faster data processing by minimizing the time it takes to transmit data to a central server**. **Security**: **Enhances security, particularly in sensitive industries like healthcare and finance**. **Scalability**: **Companies can scale operations more efficiently by integrating edge computing into their networks**. **Developing a Forward-Looking Strategy for Harnessing Emerging Technologies:** **3.1 Strategic Integration of AI** \* **AI-Driven Decision Support Systems**: **Investing in AI can enhance predictive analytics and decision-making frameworks**. \* **AI in Customer Interactions**: **Deploying chatbots and AI-driven virtual assistants can improve customer service efficiency**. \* **AI in Operations**: **Automating repetitive tasks can streamline workflows and enhance operational efficiency**. **3.2 IoT-Enabled Connectivity** \* **IoT in Supply Chain**: **Implement IoT sensors for real-time tracking and inventory management, reducing waste and increasing supply chain transparency.** \* **Smart Workplace**: **Use IoT devices to monitor and manage energy usage, workspace utilization, and employee productivity**. **3.3 Leveraging Edge Computing** \* **Hybrid Cloud-Edge Architectures**: **Create systems that blend cloud and edge computing for faster processing and increased scalability**. \* **Data Security Protocols**: **Integrate edge computing to protect sensitive data through decentralized systems**. **General Systems Model and its Application in Modern Computing** **Systems Theory** - **Transdisciplinary study of abstract org of phenomena**, independent of their evolutionary type for spatial or temporal scale of existence. It investigates both the principles common to all complex entities. **Ludwig von Bertalanffy** - Austrian biologist, known as one of the **founders of general systems theory**. This is an interdisciplinary practice that describes systems with interacting components, applicable to biology, cybernetics and other fields. **General System Model** - Framework that **provides a holistic view of systems**, **emphasizing the interrelationship and interaction among components**. **General Systems Theory** - **Identify principles applicable across various domains**, including software development, cybersecurity, cloud computing. **Systems Principles** **Wholeness** - **System is more than the sum of its parts**; the interactions among components create emergent properties. **Interrelation** - **Changes in one part of a system can affect other parts**, highlighting the importance of understanding interdependencies. **Dynamic Nature** - Systems are not static; **they evolve over time in response to internal and external stimuli**. **Boundaries** - **Separate it from its environment**, influencing its operations and interaction. **Software Dev Life Cycle** - Cost-effective and time-efficient process that **development teams use to design and build high-quality software**. Goal is to **minimize project risks through forward planning** so that customer expectations during delivery are met. - It\'s a process that **produces with the highest quality and lowest cost in the shortest time possible**. - Involves a well-structured flow of phases **that help an org to quickly produce high-quality software** which is well-tested and ready for production. 7. **Phases of SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle)** 1. **Planning Phase** - Initial stage; **defining the software scope and purpose**. - **Get req** (requirements) clarifying - **FAQ**: What problem will this software solve? What value will it offer to the user? - Much like **pinpointing our destination** and **plotting the best route**. - **We uncover the tasks at hand** during this phase and strategize for efficient execution. 2. **Requirement Analysis** - Looking for answers. - Seeks to **identify and record the precise requirements of the final users**. - **FAQ**: What are the **expectations of our users** from our software? 3. **Design** - **Building the framework.** - Dev (development) **team is responsible for software engineering** and **outlines the software's functionality and aesthetics**. - **SDD** -- **Software Design Documentation** 4. **Coding** - Get down to business and **start converting the software design into tangible code**. - **Aims to develop software** that is **functional, efficient, and user-friendly**. 5. **Testing** - **Stringent quality inspection on a production line**, instrumental in **ensuring software robustness and reliability**. **Testing Types** **Unit testing**: **per component** **Integration testing**: **combining different software** **System testing**: **entire system** **Acceptance testing**: **final system** 6. **Deployment** - **Time to present to the users**, involving **rolling out the meticulously tested and fine-tuned software to its end users**. - **Doesn't signal the end but rather a notable milestone**. - **Shift from a project phase to a product phase**. 7. **Maintenance** - **Constant assistance and improvement** - Adapt to the software's changing needs **The 4 P's of Maintenance** **Preemptive: Taking early actions to avoid issues before they occur.** **Preventive: Regular maintenance to prevent failures or downtime.** **Proactive: Addressing root causes of issues before they escalate.** **Predictive: Using data analysis and monitoring to predict and prevent potential future failures.**