INDG-1220 Final Exam Prep - Indigenous Studies PDF

INDG-1220-D01 Final exam preparation document Created by: Augustine Wu Unit 1: Introduction: What are Indigenous Studies? Definitions: Method: Systematic process for gathering knowledge, often storytelling in Indigenous contexts. Methodology: Framework aligning w...

INDG-1220-D01 Final exam preparation document Created by: Augustine Wu Unit 1: Introduction: What are Indigenous Studies? Definitions: Method: Systematic process for gathering knowledge, often storytelling in Indigenous contexts. Methodology: Framework aligning with Indigenous worldviews, often relational and reflexive. Qualitative Research: In-depth exploration of Indigenous experiences, emphasizing storytelling and community values. Quantitative Research: Numerical data supporting Indigenous issues, e.g., population statistics. Insurgent Research Methodology: Research challenging colonial narratives, prioritizing Indigenous sovereignty. Tribal Epistemology: Knowledge systems rooted in Indigenous traditions and community wisdom. Ontology: Indigenous understanding of being, often linked to relational existence with nature and community. Axiology: Indigenous values emphasizing respect, reciprocity, and community. Indigenous: Umbrella term for First Nations, Métis, and Inuit. First Nations: Distinct Indigenous peoples recognized under the Indian Act. Métis: A distinct group of Indigenous people with mixed ancestry and shared culture. Inuit: Arctic Indigenous people not governed by the Indian Act. Aboriginal: Legal term in the Constitution Act, 1982; use sparingly outside this context. Native American: Refers to Indigenous peoples in the USA, not Canada. Five W’s: 1. Role of Education TRC Murray Sinclair: a. Who: Justice Murray Sinclair. b. What: Advocate for TRC recommendations. The TRC was a result of the IRSSA agreement to recognize the trauma experienced by Indigenous students at residential schools and provided financial compensation.  c. Where: Canada d. When: 2008–2015. We want to implement this now in our education systems and find ways to improve. e. Why: Address the legacy of residential schools and promote reconciliation. We want to change stereotypes that surround Indigenous People and address how the Canadian government has treated them in the past and present. 2. Treaties in Manitoba: a. Who: Indigenous Nations and the Crown. i. Does not include Dakota Nations, Burdtail Sioux, Sioux Valley, Canupawakpa, Dakota Tipi, Dakota Plains. Includes: Dakhóta Oyáte, Anishinaabe, Nehiyaw, Anishinini, Dene Suline. b. What: Agreements for shared land use. Treaties 1-5 in Manitoba. c. Where: Manitoba. i. Treaty 1 – Southern Manitoba ii. Treaty 2 – Southwestern Manitoba iii. Treaty 3 – Southeastern Manitoba iv. Treaty 4- Above Treaty 2 v. Treaty 5 – Mid-Northern Manitoba Spreading east to west d. When: 1870s (Treaty 1–5). i. Treat 1&2 – 1871 ii. Treaty 3 – 1873 iii. Treaty 4 – 1874 iv. Treaty 5 - 1875 e. Why: Establish terms for coexistence and resource use, sharing the land Indigenous People traditionally occupied. 3. Manitoba Métis Federation (MMF) Regions: a. Who: Métis people governed by the Manitoba Métis Federation. i. Includes individuals who identify as Métis are registered members of the Manitoba Métis Federation. b. What: MMF Regions are specific geographical areas in Manitoba that are used for organizational purposes. i. Cultural and Community initiatives: They are involved in cultural, social, and economic initiatives aimed at supporting and promoting the well-being of Métis people in Manitoba.  c. When: The MMF was established in 1967. d. Where: Manitoba. i. Ex. Winnipeg Region, Interlake Region, Thompson Region, Southwest Region. e. Why: To protect Métis rights and culture. i. Accountable governance on behalf of the Red River Métis using constitutional authorities. 4. Inuit in Manitoba: a. Who: People of the Inuktitut language i. Inuit Organizations: Groups and Organizations that represent and support the Inuit Community in Manitoba. b. What: The term “Inuit Nunangat” is a Canadian Inuktitut term that includes Land, water, and ice. Important to their culture and Identity. i. Historical migration and adaptation. c. Where: Northern Manitoba. i. Inuit communities within Manitoba d. Why: Inuit resilience and adaptation to regional environments. i. Maintaining and preserving Inuit culture and traditions in Manitoba. 5. Province of Manitoba Aboriginal Population Census 2016: a. Who: Indigenous peoples in Manitoba. b. What: Census data on the Aboriginal population in Manitoba, including demographic information. i. Population statistics. c. Where: Manitoba. d. When: 2016 Census. e. Why: Documenting demographics for policy and support. i. To gather demographic information for policymaking, resource allocation, and understanding the characteristics of the Aboriginal population in the province. ii. In 2016, 223,310 Aboriginal people in Manitoba made up 18% of the population. Either reporting First Nations, Métis, or Inuk (Inuit). 58.4% were First Nations People, 40% were Métis, 0.3% were Inuit. iii. 92.9% of First Nations had registered or were Treaty Indian Status defined under the Indian Act. The other 7.1% of First Nations population did not have registered or treaty Indian Status. Concepts: Indigenous Studies R’s of Research: Respect, Responsibility, Reciprocity, and Relevance guide ethical research. Role of Indigenous Studies: Indigenous Studies must uphold the responsibilities of research, ensure research is relevant to communities and serves with reciprocity, demonstrates respect through humanity, and grant sovereignty to the community through the right of refusal, and through relationships. o Exposes colonial systems, dismantles harmful practices, and creates space for Indigenous perspectives. Unit 2: Pre-contact Period: Origins, World Views & Culture Definitions: Kelp Forest: Rich marine ecosystems significant to coastal Indigenous groups. o Kelp on the Pacific rim, helps to create a kelp highway for Indigenous People to follow to a new world. Beringia: Land bridge enabling migration from Asia to North America. Angakoks, or Shaman: Inuit spiritual leaders who interact with the spirit world. o They were religious leaders, tradesmen, healers. Coppers: Ceremonial objects used in Northwest Coast potlatch ceremonies. o Copper pieces hammered into a shield for decoration, traded with families at ceremonies. Kaianeraserakowa: The Great Law of Peace, the foundation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. o An unwritten constitution of the Confederacy between eastern woodlands cultures. Travois: Transport frame used by Plains peoples. o Type of sled using two long poles to hold goods. Used to build tipi. Pit Houses: Underground lodgings used by Plateau cultures in winter. Five W’s: 1. Clovis First Hypothesis a. Who: Clovis people, known for their fluted stone tools. b. What: First human migration into the Americas. c. Where: Via the Bering Land Bridge, spreading across North America.  d. When: Around 13,200 years ago (Late Glacial Maximum). e. Why: To explain the first widespread human presence in the Americas, though now contested by pre-Clovis evidence. 2. Bering Strait Theory a. Who: Early modern humans (hunter-gatherers) from northeast Asia. b. What: Migration into the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia). c. Where: From Siberia to Alaska, spreading into North and South America. d. When: During the Last Glacial Maximum, ~25,000 to 15,000 years ago. e. Why: To access new resources and escape ecological pressures, using rich ecosystems in Beringia and coastal areas as pathways. 3. Coastal Migration Theory: a. Who: Early human populations. b. What: Migration along the Pacific Coast and believed that humans traveled along coastlines. i. Suggests that humans arrived by boat along the Pacific Rim. An alternative to the Bering Strait Theory. c. Where: From Asia to the Americas. d. When: ~15,000 years ago. e. Why: To find food and resources. i. Coastal environments provided abundant food resources ii. Human remains were found along the coastline, which were much older than the remains found on Bering strait suggesting this is how they first migrated. 4. Six Nations Confederacy: a. Who: Eastern Woodland Peoples/ Haudenosaunee i. Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, Tuscarora. b. What: 1st political alliance of First Nations that created the Great law of peace. c. Where: Northeastern North America (i.e. Ontario, Quebec, Maritimes) d. When: 1400–1600 CE. e. Why: To promote peace because of civil wars, conflict, daily village concerns. 5. Arctic Cultures: a. Who: Inuit people, Indigenous to the Arctic region. b. What: Inuit developed unique physiological adaptions, including an increased basal metabolic rate that aids in heat generation. - North of Artic Circle - 8 different cultural groups, which all spoke different dialects. c. Where: Alaska’s border through northern Canada to the eastern Atlantic i. Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavut, Northern Quebec d. When: For thousands of years before Europeans arrived. e. Why: Understanding/Preserving unique cultural heritage, traditional knowledge, and resilience of Arctic Indigenous communities in Manitoba. i. The Inuit’s adaptations are essential for survival in the Arctic’s extreme environments. 6. Subarctic Cultures: a. Who: Nehiyaw (cree), Beothuk, Innu (Montagnais – Naskapi), and Thcho (Dogrib). b. What: Had two main languages. The first Athabascan speakers lived in the western regions of the Subarctic. The second Algonquian speakers lived in the eastern regions of the Subarctic. c. Where: Extended from Newfoundland and Labrador in the East to the Yukon Territory d. When: No date found e. Why: If food was scarce, one nation might grant hunting rights to another to share the resources of a particular area. 7. Northwest Coast Cultures a. Who: Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka’wakw (Kwakiutl), Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), and Coast Salish b. What: The population of villages was around 100 or more people. c. Where: Coastal area stretching from Vancouver Island in the south up past Queen Charlotte Islands in the North. d. When: No date found e. Why: resources from land and water. Salmon, fish, sea lions, whales, mussels, roots and berries. Moose, Caribou, Sheep.  8. Eastern Woodlands Cultures a. Who: Tionotati (Petun), Ouendat (Huron), Saulteaux (Ojibwa), Anishnabek (Algonquin), Mi’kmkaw (Micmac), and others. b. What: Iroquoian and Algonquian c. Where: Territory covered from Ontario’s Great Lakes through southern Québec and into the Maritime Provinces. d. When: Between 1400 and 1600. e. Why: Hunting was the most important means of survival, leading to less use for permanent dwellings than those used by agriculturalists. 9. Plains Culture a. Who: Plains First Nations – Siksika (Blackfoot), Nakota (Assiniboine), Plains Cree, and others. b. What: 3 main language families: Algonquian, Siouan, Athapaskan. c. Where: Covered territory east of the Rocky Mountains into what is today known as southern Manitoba. d. When: Celebrations happened midsummer e. Why: Plains people relied upon other resources for survival, bison was an enormous natural resource around which Plains First Nations’ cultures developed. 10. Plateau Culture a. Who: Secwepemc (Shuswap), Wet’suwet’en (Carrier), Sylix (Okanagan), and Ktunaxa (Kutenai). b. What: Athapaskan, Salishan, or Kutenai language families c. Where: Between British Columbia coast range and the Rocky Mountains d. When: Spring, Summer, Fall, were best times for hunting and fishing e. Why: Smoking and drying meat was important for use in the winter, when fishing or hunting was impossible. Concepts: Archaeology of North and South America as a battleground: Refers to the intersection of archaeological research and Indigenous communities in a context where historical, cultural and political tensions may arise.  o Examples) Destroying of Historic Sites, Archeology as evidence of colonialism, Land rights and research management Impact of Fire Impression: Efforts employed to control and manage wildfires that may threaten communities, lands, and resources. o Activities to prevent spread of fires, protecting property and environment. o Indigenous fire use shaped ecosystems, encouraging biodiversity. Goals of Indigenous burning: - Enhancing Food Security: Indigenous burning was used to create a mosaic of habitat patches that supported diverse plant and animal life. This diversity ensured a stable food supply by buffering against natural fluctuations in single food species. For example, fire was used to create prairies for attracting game like elk and deer. - Improving Resource Availability: Burning was employed to manage and enhance resources, such as promoting the growth of edible plants, medicinal crops, and materials for basketry. Riparian areas were burned to attract game and encourage the regrowth of grasses and tree sprouts. - Pest Control: Fire was used to reduce pest populations, such as acorn weevils, ensuring a more abundant and higher-quality crop yield, particularly in oak woodlands. - Ecosystem Management: Indigenous burning was critical in maintaining ecosystem health by reducing fuel loads, managing forest density, and preventing large-scale destructive wildfires. This practice helped to create a balance between different successional stages in forests and grasslands. - Spiritual and Cultural Responsibility: Indigenous communities often viewed burning as a spiritual obligation and a form of reciprocity with the land. Fire was seen as a tool to "multiply life," fulfilling a responsibility to care for the land and promote biodiversity. For instance, some ceremonies involved ritualistic burning to renew the world. - Landscape Manipulation for Mobility and Signaling: Fires were also set to clear travel corridors, signal over long distances, and fireproof settlements. Unit 3: Perspectives on First Contact with Europeans Definitions: Potlatch: Ceremonial feasts demonstrating wealth and status. o Occasions to acknowledge the social order ceremonially. o Convened to mourn deaths, bestow names, erase the shame/errors, and recognize succession to titles and economic rights. o Acknowledged marriages and divorce. Great Law of Peace: Haudenosaunee Constitution Act promoting peace. o Righteousness, Health, Power. Many Lodges Gathering: The Blackfoot gathered once a year annually. At these gatherings, all the main warriors, religious, women's, children's and police societies held their own special and unique ceremonies. o The gathering was called the Sundance. o Place for renewment, purification, and fulfillment of spiritaul promise to the Creator for the benefit of a loved one. Thule Period: From 900 AD to 1200 AD with a rapid expansion of Thule people among the Arctic. A rare warm period for climate conditions. People of the Dawn: Mi’kmaq people who lived farthest east. The sun plays a prominent role in their creation story. Longhouses: Communal dwellings used by Eastern Woodlands peoples. o 15 to 40 meters in length, 5 meters in width. o Constructed of upright poles with cross poles creating an arched roof. o Covered with elm or ash bark. One longhouse could occupy 10-20 families. Sacred Pipe: Was given to the Indian nations by the Creator to pray with in search of wisdom, guidance, knowledge, and to bind all the relations together. o Used in prayer and supplication. o Offered to the Great Spirit, and Four Directions (N,E,S,W) - to father sky and mother earth.  Plank Houses: Accommodated 20 or more related persons and were grouped in villages of 500 or more persons. o Made from cedar. Houses situated to reflect rank and social relationships, the highest house for the chief in the center. Tunit: Descendants of an earlier migration, around 2500 BC, that also originated in Alaska or Siberia. o Said to be a gentle race, great hunters of seals, with whom Inuit lived until quarrels erupted and they were driven away. o Thought to have occupies most of the present Inuit lands. The Columbian Exchange: A deeply unequal transfer of goods, ideas, and diseases that devastated Indigenous populations in the New World (Turtle Island) while primarily benefiting the Old World with new resources and crops. o Followed the voyage by Christopher Columbus in 1942 to the Americas. Quinine: A medicinal resource originating from the Andes, symbolizes the exploitation of Indigenous knowledge and natural resources by colonial powers, who appropriated it to advance imperial agendas while marginalizing its original stewards. o A medicinal “gift” from the New World, derived from cinchona trees Native to the Andes. First effective treatment for malaria. Discovered in 1841 by Dr. Thomas R.H. Thomson. Christopher Columbus: A symbol of colonial myths (discovery of North America), as he never reached North America but instead landed in the Caribbean, with many now replacing Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples Day to honour Indigenous histories. o First European to see the Bahamas archipelago. Then to Central & South America. Five W’s: 1. Mi’kmaq Contact: a. Who: Mi’kmaq people. b. What: Initial interactions with Europeans. c. Where: Eastern Canada. d. When: Early European exploration.  e. Why: Trade opportunities. 2. Haudenosaunee (aka Iroquois) Contact: a. Who: Haudenosaunee, people of the longhouse – from the village of Stadacona b. What: Cartier went to search for a northwest passage and encountered the Haudenosaunee c. Where: St. Lawrence, Stadacona d. When: 1535 – made contact with Cartier e. Why: Cartier erected a cross and claimed the land for King Francis I – did not make the Haudenosaunee happy 3. Niitsitapi Contact: a. Who: The Blackfoot Confederacy, including the Siksikawa, Kainaiwa, Pikuniwa, Tsuu T'ina, and Gros Ventres, interacted with neighboring Indigenous nations and early European fur traders and settlers. b. What: Contact with Europeans introduced trade, horses, firearms, and diseases, disrupting Blackfoot lands, culture, and spiritual practices c. Where: The Blackfoot Confederacy's territory stretched from the Rocky Mountains to the Yellowstone River, Cypress Hills, and North Saskatchewan River d. When: Regular contact began in the 18th century with the westward expansion of the fur trade and settler incursions. e. Why: Europeans sought resources and land, while the Blackfoot adapted to defend their territories and sustain their way of life. 4. Kwakwa ka’wakw contact a. Who: The Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw, a northwest coast Indigenous group, were part of a broader network of culturally and linguistically diverse nations in coastal British Columbia. b. What: Contact introduced European goods, technologies, and diseases, impacting their potlatch-centered social structure and trade systems, while Europeans utilized Indigenous expertise for exploration and trade. c. Where: This contact occurred along the Pacific Coast of present-day British Columbia, particularly in villages accessible by water routes like the Dean Channel. d. When: Interactions began intensifying in the late 18th century, especially during Alexander Mackenzie's exploration in 1793. e. Why: Europeans sought resources, trade partnerships, and routes through the continent, while the Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw maintained their economy and social order through trade and ceremonial practices like potlatches.  5. Inuit contact a. Who: Inuit, descendants of the Thule culture, and Norse settlers expanding into Greenland b. What: The contact involved encounters, conflicts, and limited trade, evidenced by Norse artifacts found at Thule sites. c. Where: Interactions occurred in Greenland and possibly regions where Thule and Norse territories overlapped. d. When: The contact happened between 900 and 1200 AD, during a warm climatic period. e. Why: Both groups were expanding due to environmental changes and technological advancements, leading to competition and exchange. 6. Tobacco a. Who: Indigenous peoples of the Americas were the original cultivators and users of tabacco b. What: Tobacco was used in spiritual ceremonies, as a hallucinogen, and as a painkiller c. Where: Tobacco originated in the Americas and was spread globally by European explorers, with significant early cultivation in the New World d. When: Indigenous use dates back to the first century BCE, with widespread Europeans adoption beginning in the 16th century e. Why: Tobacco was used for spiritual and medicinal purposes, while Europeans valued it for its supposed healing properties and as a commodity, transforming it into a major global trade good and currency 7. Forced and voluntary migrations to the Americas: a. Who: Over 12 million Africans. b. What: Crowded Conditions, malnutrition, disease, denies rights, killed. c. Where: Shipped to the Americas d. When: Between the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries e. Why: High demand for labor and agriculture Concepts: The Three Parts of the Sparks of Life in Living Things?: A form that decays and disappears after death; a mntu or spark that travels after death to the lands of the souls; and the guardian spark or spirits that aid people during their earth walk. Significance of Oolichan Oil: It was a principal item traded between coastal peoples and others of the interior of what is now British Columbia.  Diseases Introduced to Turtle Island: Smallpox, influenza, measles devastated Indigenous populations. Food introduced to other continents after contact: Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Maize, and Cassava. Tomatoes, chili peppers, cacao, peanuts, and pineapples. Unit 4: The Changing Relationships During the Fur Trade Definitions: Northwest Company: Fur trade company rivaling the Hudson’s Bay Company. Hudson’s Bay Company: Dominant fur trade organization post-1821 merger. Mackenzie Inuit: Inuit group that lived near the lower Mackenzie River in Northwest Territories and disappeared due to epidemic infectious disease. Wattap: Spruce root used for stitching birch bark. Five W’s: 1. George Bonga: a. Who: Black and Indigenous fur trader. b. What: Interpreter and trader. c. Where: Northern US and Canada. d. When: Early 19th century. e. Why: Bridging communities and trade relations. 2. Inuit Fur Trade: a. Who: Inuit of the Canadian Arctic. b. What: Cultural changes including the introduction of European goods. c. Where: Canadian Arctic. d. When: 20th century. e. Why: Flourished due to European interest in furs but government policies later encouraged centralized living. 3. Disappearance of the Stadacona: a. Who: St. Lawrence Iroquoians. b. What: Vanished from historical records by the early 1600s. c. Where: Present-day Quebec City. d. When: Late 1540 and early 1600s. e. Why: Exposure to European diseases and conflicts with the Mohawk.  4. The Bombardier Channel Site: a. Who: The Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre, the agency of government of the Northwest Territories responsible for protection of archaeological sites. b. What: Bones and cultural material were observed eroding from the riverbank. c. Where: Situated at the juncture of Oniak and Bombardier channels in the Mackenzie delta, 70 km south of the tree line. d. When: September 1982 e. Why: Most of the site had been washed out of the riverbank. By the end of the summer all traces of the site were erased. Thus, in less than a year a small but significant archaeological site was first exposed and then completely obliterated through the action of the Mackenzie River eroding its bank. Concepts: Effects of Fur Trade: Over-trapping, intermarriage, and Christianization disrupted Indigenous cultures. Differing approaches to intermarrying NWC & HBC: The North West Company (NWC) encouraged its traders to marry Indigenous women, seeing it as a way to build trust, alliances, and connections with Indigenous communities, which helped their fur trade. In contrast, the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) initially discouraged intermarriage, wanting to keep a distance from Indigenous peoples, but later allowed it to compete better with the NWC. Contributions of Indigenous women form fur trade to rural laborer: Creating items like wattaps and birchbark containers and maintaining households. As well as crafting, farming and domestic work. Hierarchies of meat and fish: Perceived cultural and nutritional superiority of meat over fish among fur trades and British society. Red meat was linked with masculinity, strength, and civilization but fish was considered inferior sustenance. Unit 5: Indigenous-Colonial Wars Definitions: Beaver War Thesis: Explanation of Iroquois conflicts over fur trade dominance. Pemoussa: Great war chief of the Fox Indians. Five W’s: 1. Fox Wars: a. Who: Meskwaki (Fox) Nation and the French. b. What: Conflicts over control of fur trade routes. c. Where: Great Lakes region. d. When: 1712–1733. e. Why: Competition for fur trade and territorial control. 2. Iroquois War: a. Who: Haudenosaunee and French settlers. b. What: Series of wars involving guerrilla tactics and territorial disputes. c. Where: Northeastern North America. d. When: 17th century. e. Why: Expansion of territory and trade routes. 3. Mi’kmaq War: a. Who: Mi’kmaq people and British settlers. b. What: Resistance against colonial encroachment. c. Where: Maritime regions. d. When: 18th century. e. Why: Protecting land and culture. 4. Denonville Expedition: a. Who: French forces led by Governor Denonville. b. What: Attack on Haudenosaunee villages. c. Where: Northeastern North America. d. When: 1687. e. Why: Retaliation for Iroquois raids. 5. French-Indian Alliance System: a. Who: French and allied Indigenous nations. b. What: Alliances for fur trade and military support. c. Where: New France and surrounding regions. d. When: 17th–18th centuries.  e. Why: To strengthen French colonial presence. Concepts: Issues with The Jesuit Relations: Bias and lack of understanding of Indigenous cultures in missionary records. French Slavery: Use of enslaved Indigenous and African peoples in French colonies. Champlain’s Military Alliances: Partnerships with Indigenous nations for trade and protection. Unit 6: Government Policy Period Definitions: Bill C-31: Legislation to restore Indian status to women and their children who lost it through discriminatory practices. Enfranchisement: Process of revoking Indigenous status to assimilate individuals into Canadian society. John Brandt: Indigenous leader advocating for education and land rights. Wabasha: Dakota leader during treaty negotiations. Niagara Operation: Agreement between Indigenous nations and the Crown during early treaty-making. Five W’s: 1. Tecumseh: a. Who: Shawnee leader. b. What: Advocated for a pan-Indigenous alliance. c. Where: Great Lakes region. d. When: Early 19th century. e. Why: Resist colonial expansion. 2. The Royal Proclamation: a. Who: British Crown. b. What: Framework for treaty-making with Indigenous nations. c. Where: British North America. d. When: 1763. e. Why: Recognize Indigenous land rights and establish colonial order.  3. Gradual Enfranchisement Act: a. Who: Canadian government. b. What: Policy aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples. c. Where: Canada. d. When: 1869. e. Why: Encourage assimilation into settler society. 4. Manitoba Act: a. Who: Métis people and the Canadian government. b. What: Created the province of Manitoba. c. Where: Manitoba. d. When: 1870. e. Why: Address Métis demands after Red River Resistance. 5. Inuit Inclusion and Repeal in the Indian Act: a. Who: Inuit people and the Canadian government. b. What: Exclusion from and later consideration in policy frameworks. c. When: 20th century. d. Why: Address unique Inuit governance needs. Concepts: Implications of the Indian Act Divisions: Fragmentation of Indigenous communities. Indian Act Amendments 1876–1950: Increased restrictions on Indigenous rights and governance. Crown Avoiding Métis Recognition: Legal challenges over Métis identity and rights. Inuit Relocations: Forced relocations disrupting traditional Inuit lifestyles. Creation of reserves: Once treaties were signed, First Nations were forced onto reserves by the Dominion Government. The police used “food as a weapon” to displace First Nations. Left many hungry and starving First Nations with few options aside from moving onto reserve. Rotten food was distributed. Pass system: First Nations obtained a pass signed by the [Indian] agent or farming instructor before leaving the reserve. Impact of the Royal proclamation on Manitoba Métis federation supreme court case: The Royal Proclamation of 1763 reinforced the Crown’s duty to honor commitments to Indigenous peoples. In the Manitoba Métis Federation case, the Unit 7: The Métis Period Definitions: Section 31 of the Manitoba Act: Provided Métis families with land as part of Manitoba's entry into Canada. Section 32 of the Manitoba Act: Recognized existing landholdings of Métis people. “Logic of Elimination”: Colonial framework to erase Indigenous identities and sovereignty. Métis: Indigenous people with a distinct culture, history, and self-identity. Powley Test: Legal framework to determine Métis rights under Section 35 of the Constitution. Capote: Traditional Métis coat made from blankets. Métis Flag: Symbol of Métis identity, featuring the infinity symbol. Five W’s: 1. Louis Riel: a. Who: Métis leader and founder of Manitoba. b. What: Led Red River and Northwest Resistances. c. Where: Manitoba and Saskatchewan. d. When: 1869–1885. e. Why: Advocate for Métis rights and culture. 2. Victory of Frog Plain (Battle of Seven Oaks): a. Who: Métis and Hudson’s Bay Company. b. What: Armed conflict over pemmican trade. c. Where: Manitoba. d. When: 1816. e. Why: Assert Métis economic and political power. 3. Annie Bannatyne a. Who: One of the most prominent women in Red River Métis society b. What: Publicly and physically confronted Mair (viewed Métis women as inferior). With the store full of people, Bannatyne, horsewhip in hand, grabbed Mair by the nose and “administered five or six strokes of the whip to his body c. Where: Red River d. When: January 1869  e. Why: Métis women had emboldened them to take public action after Mair’s insults and mistreatment. Allowed Métis women to gain recognition by the Canadian government 4. Dorothy Chartrand: a. Who: Métis grandmother and geneologist. b. What: supported greater understandings Métis history. Used archival records to find literature to locate the stories in a larger social and political history. c. When: Her research began in 1979 d. Where: River lot in St. Albert (raised) e. Why: Shared the gift of storytelling, historical families, and ancestry. 5. Victoria Calihoo: a. Who: A woman of the Red River Métis community b. What: Talked about her experiences growing up in the Métis community of Lac Ste. Anne. Reflected on her participation in buffalo hunting, important decision making, and preparing pemmican. c. Where: Red River d. When: By 1816 e. Why: Demonstrated that in every aspect of Métis life, women were vital, amassed great respect, and provided necessary balance in Métis families and societies. Concepts: Decline of Buffalo Hunt: Overhunting and environmental changes led to loss of traditional Métis livelihood. Forcefield of Settler Colonialism: Systematic policies undermining Métis identity and sovereignty. Historians neglecting stories of women: o believed that women occupied a degraded position within western indigenous societies. Tried to become the wife of a superior trader. In reality the women may have sacrificed considerable personal autonomy, being forced to adjust to the traders’ patriarchal views on the ordering of home and family o historians may privilege the written text over oral sources, and not attend to the unreliability of written sources Roles of women at Fur trade forts o Cleaning walks  o Gardening in the summer o Repaired canoes and fishing nets o Drying out meat to make pemmican o Mediators for the fur trade Mixed Metis is inaccurate: ignores the history of who the Métis and non-status people were and therefore misrepresents who they are today Unit 8: Land Dispossession: Treaties & Scrip Definitions: Treaty Right: Legal entitlements recognized in treaties between Indigenous nations and the Crown. Treaty Adhesion: Formal agreement by additional Indigenous groups to existing treaties. Two-Row Wampum: A symbolic belt representing agreements of mutual respect and coexistence between Indigenous and European nations. Kiciwamanawak: A Cree term meaning "cousins" or "relatives," emphasizing kinship ties. Bimaadiziwin: An Anishinaabe concept referring to living a good and balanced life. Gdoo-naaganinaa: Refers to treaty agreements as a "dish with one spoon," symbolizing shared land and resources. British North America Act: The 1867 legislation that created Canada but ignored Indigenous sovereignty. Davin Report: A document advocating for the establishment of residential schools to assimilate Indigenous children. Treaty 1: The first of the numbered treaties signed in Manitoba in 1871. Five W’s: 1. Pre-Confederation Treaties: a. Who: Indigenous Nations and the Crown. b. What: Agreements for land use and coexistence. c. Where: Present-day Canada. d. When: Before 1867. e. Why: Establish relationships and regulate settlement. 2. The Early British Land Treaties:  a. Who: Indigenous Nations and British Crown. b. What: Treaties for land cessions. c. Where: Eastern Canada. d. When: Late 1700s–early 1800s. e. Why: Expand British colonies. 3. The Post-Confederation Land Treaties: a. Who: Indigenous Nations and the Canadian government. b. What: Numbered treaties (e.g., Treaty 1–11). c. Where: Western Canada. d. When: 1870s–1920s. e. Why: Facilitate settlement and resource extraction. 4. War of 1812: a. Who: British, Indigenous allies, and Americans. b. What: Conflict for territory and influence. c. Where: Canada and the United States. d. When: 1812–1815. e. Why: Protect land and trade routes. 5. Métis Scrip: a. Who: Métis people and Canadian government. b. What: Land grants replacing treaty rights. c. Where: Western Canada. d. When: Late 1800s. e. Why: To extinguish Métis land claims. Concepts: Numbered Treaties Crown Obligations: Provision of land, resources, and services to Indigenous peoples. Numbered Treaties Status Indian Obligations: Agreement to share land peacefully while retaining hunting and fishing rights. Corruption in Métis Scrip: Fraudulent practices depriving Métis of promised land. Treaty Benefit for Newcomers: Access to land and resources for settlement and development. Unit 9: Residential School Period Definitions: Pass System: Policy restricting Indigenous mobility without government permission. Chief Shingwauk: Indigenous leader advocating for education to preserve culture. Recollets: Early Catholic missionaries in New France. Thomas Moore: An Indigenous child used in photographs to promote residential schools. Duncan Campbell Scott: Government official promoting assimilation policies, including residential schools. "A National Crime": A term describing systemic abuse and neglect in residential schools. Sixties Scoop: Policy removing Indigenous children from families for adoption into non-Indigenous homes. Five W’s: 1. Residential Schools: a. Who: Indigenous children and Canadian government. b. What: Institutions aimed at assimilating Indigenous children. c. Where: Across Canada. d. When: 1870s–1996. e. Why: Enforce assimilation and erasure of Indigenous cultures. 2. Residential School Funding: a. Who: Federal government and churches. b. What: Financial support for operation. c. Where: Canada. d. When: 1870s–1990s. e. Why: Promote assimilation policies. 3. Harper Apology: a. Who: Prime Minister Stephen Harper. b. What: Apology for residential schools. c. Where: House of Commons, Canada. d. When: 2008. e. Why: Acknowledge historical wrongs. Concepts: Connections Between Gradual Civilization Act, Indian Act, and Residential Schools: All aimed at assimilating Indigenous peoples and eroding cultural identity. Assimilative Intent (Residential Schools & Sixties Scoop): Policies designed to erase Indigenous cultures through forced assimilation. Debate on Parental visits and access to their children: In 1891, Qu’Appelle (Residential School) had the ability for parents to withdraw their children from the school. Hugonnard liked the idea, but Reed did not. Dinjii Zhuh concept of strength: Three concepts: T’aih (Ancestral strength), Vit’aih (Personal strength), and Guut’aii (Collective strength). Metis and Inuit attendance at Residential School: Attendance starts to increase as time went on. Unit 10: Repression & Resistance Period Definitions: Tommy Prince: Decorated Indigenous war hero who served in World War II. Indigenous Veterans Day: A day to honor Indigenous contributions to the military. Charlotte Edith Monture: First Indigenous woman to serve as a nurse in World War I. Mary Greyeyes: First Indigenous woman to join the Canadian Women’s Army Corps. Forgotten Soldiers: Term for Indigenous veterans whose contributions were overlooked. Bill C-51: Legislation that would criminalize Indigenous public voices and communications. It occurred in 2015. Natural Resources Transfer Agreement: Agreement transferring control of natural resources to provinces, impacting Indigenous rights. Lt. Frederick O. Loft: Mohawk leader and WWI veteran who founded the League of Indians. Forgotten People: A term for the Metis people after the resistance. Five W’s: 1. WWI Indigenous Involvement:  a. Who: Indigenous soldiers. b. What: Contributions to Allied forces. c. Where: Canada and Europe. d. When: 1914–1918. e. Why: Support their communities and the Crown. 2. WWII Indigenous Involvement: a. Who: Indigenous soldiers and communities. b. What: Contributions to Allied efforts. c. Where: Canada and globally. d. When: 1939–1945. e. Why: Defense of freedoms and treaty commitments. 3. Northwest Resistance: a. Who: Métis and Indigenous allies, including Louis Riel and Gabriel Dumont. b. What: Armed resistance against Canadian government. c. Where: Saskatchewan at Batoche. d. When: 1885. e. Why: Protect Métis land rights and culture. 4. Little Ice Age a. Who: No specific person b. What: An event that was a disadvantage for the Indigenous nation. The disadvantages: Failure for agriculture and reduction in bison (food) c. Where: Affected mostly Western Canada, which is Manitoba. d. When: After 1885. e. Why: Climate change Concepts: Indian Agents and Enlistment: Indian Agents controlled Indigenous participation in the military. Issues with Soldier Settlement Act: Discriminatory policies in post-war land allocations. Impact of Amendment to Section 9 of Citizenship Act: Changes to citizenship impacting Indigenous veterans’ rights.