Human Geography Notes 2025 PDF

Human Geography Notes: Spring 2025 Chapter 1: This is Human Geography ​ Geographers Explain Where and Why ○​ A geographer’s most important tool is a map. ○​ “Five Themes” of Geography: ​ Place ​ Location ​ Region...

Human Geography Notes: Spring 2025 Chapter 1: This is Human Geography ​ Geographers Explain Where and Why ○​ A geographer’s most important tool is a map. ○​ “Five Themes” of Geography: ​ Place ​ Location ​ Region ​ Movement ​ Human-Environment Interaction ​ Reading Maps ○​ Map scale can be presented as a ratio (fraction), as a written scale, or as a graphic scale ​ Small scale maps - zoomed out (everything looks small, no detail) ​ Large scale maps - zoomed in (can see detail) ​ Projection ○​ Transferring locations on Earth’s surface to a flat map ○​ Drawing Earth on a flat piece of paper can cause distortion in shape, distance, relative size, and direction ○​ Robinson Projection ​ Typical world map ○​ Goode Homolosine Projection ​ Split at oceans  ​ everything is flat ○​ Mercator ​ Sets all latitude and longitude lines to create 90 degree angles ​ The Geographic Grid: Latitude and Longitude ○​ Lines of longitude are humanly-created arcs known as meridians ○​ Lines of latitude are scientifically-derived circles known as parallels ​ Time Zones ○​ Longitude plays an important role in calculating the time. ​ Contemporary Geographic Tools ○​ GPS ​ Smart phones and computers use Global Positioning Systems that determine precise positions on Earth ​ GIS ○​ Geographic Information Science analyzes data acquired through satellite and other remote-sensing technologies. ○​ Geographic Information Systems capture, store, query, and display geographic data ​ Toponyms - Name given to a place on Earth ○​ May be derived from the name of a person, religious names, ancient history, or earlier inhabitants, among other things. ​ Site ○​ The physical characteristics of a place, such as climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation comprise the concept of site. ​ Situation ○​ Situation helps us find an unfamiliar place by comparing its location with a familiar one. ○​ It also helps us understand the importance of a location. ​ Region: A Unique Area ○​ A formal region is an area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics. ○​ It is also called a uniform region or a homogeneous region. ​ Functional Region ○​ A functional region is an area organized around a node or focal point. ○​ It is also called a nodal region. ​ Vernacular Region ○​ An area that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity. ​ Scale: From Global to Local ○​ Globalization of the Economy ○​ The interconnectedness of people and places around the world ​ Globalization of Culture ○​ Globalization of culture produces uniform “global” landscapes of material artifacts and of cultural values. ​ The internet helps spread culture; historically, missionaries and the Pope ○​ Some local cultural beliefs, forms, and traits are threatened with extinction. ​ Ex. Languages going extinct (Latin is a recent example) ​ Local Diversity ○​ Globalization has not destroyed the uniqueness of an individual place’s culture economy. ○​ Cultural differences among places not only persist but actually flourish in many places.  ​ Unequal Access ​ Density ○​ The frequency with which something occurs in space. ​ Concentration ○​ The extent of a feature spread over space. ​ Pattern ○​ The geometric arrangement of objects in space. ○​ Some features are organized in a geometric pattern, whereas others are distributed irregularly. ​ Cultural Identity ○​ Cultural Groups in Space ​ Geographers take a range of approaches to cultural identity and space ​ Poststructuralist geography examines ​ How the powerful in a society dominate less powerful groups. ​ How dominated groups occupy space. ​ Confrontations that result from domination Chapter 1: Textbook Notes Chapter 1: This is Geography 1.1 Key Issues in Geography 1. Why Is Geography a Science? -​ Geography is the scientific study of where things are found on Earth and why they are there. -​ Combines social science (human geography) and natural science (physical geography). -​ Maps are geography’s most fundamental tool, used for analyzing spatial distribution and communicating geographic data. -​ Early humans were the first to make maps. Modern cartographers use GIS, GPS, and remote sensing to create more accurate maps. 2. Why Is Every Place Unique? -​ Each location on Earth has a unique combination of physical and cultural characteristics. - Place: A specific point on Earth with distinct characteristics. - Region: An area defined by one or more unifying characteristics. 3. Why Are Different Places Similar? -​ Spatial patterns are visible across places, and geographers study these regularities at different scales. -​ Scale: Relationship between the area studied and the entire Earth. -​ Space: The physical gap between two objects.  -​ Connection: How people and places interact and influence each other. 4. Why Are Places Connected? -​ Geography studies human-environment interaction, including sustainable and unsustainable practices. -​ Some human activities preserve the environment, while others lead to long-term damage. 1.2 Geographic Tools & Concepts Maps: The Core Tool of Geography -​ Reference Maps: Used for navigation and location (e.g., road maps). -​ Thematic Maps: Show distribution of human activities or physical features. -​ Cartography: The science of making maps. GIScience: Geographic Information Science -​ Uses satellite data to create detailed maps. -​ GIS (Geographic Information System): Captures, stores, analyzes, and layers geographic data. -​ Remote Sensing: Satellite or aerial images used for mapping and analysis. -​ Photogrammetry: 3D mapping from aerial photos. GPS & Geotagging -​ GPS (Global Positioning System): Determines exact locations on Earth using satellites. -​ Geotagging: Attaches geographic coordinates to digital media (e.g., smartphone photos). Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) -​ Citizen Science: Public contributes to geographic research. -​ OpenStreetMap & Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team (HOT): Used for disaster response. -​ Mashups: Combine multiple map layers (e.g., Google Maps + traffic data). 1.3 Development of Geography as a Science Ancient Geographic Thought -​ Eratosthenes: Coined the term "geography," calculated Earth’s circumference. -​ Ptolemy: Created detailed world maps used for centuries. -​ Chinese & Islamic contributions: Developed early maps and geographic texts. Revival of Geography in Europe -​ Age of Exploration (15th–16th centuries): Navigation advancements improved map accuracy.  -​ Key Cartographers: Ortelius, Waldseemüller, and others refined geographic techniques. 1.4 The Geographic Grid Latitude & Longitude -​ Latitude (Parallels): Lines measuring distance north or south of the equator (0°). -​ Longitude (Meridians): Lines measuring distance east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°). -​ International Date Line (180° longitude): Crossing east subtracts a day; crossing west adds a day. Time Zones -​ Earth is divided into 24 time zones, each covering 15° of longitude. -​ UTC (Coordinated Universal Time): The global reference time, centered at Greenwich, England. Map Scale & Projection -​ Scale: Relationship between map size and real-world distance. -​ Projection: Methods to display Earth’s curved surface on a flat map. -​ Mercator Projection: Distorts size but maintains shape. -​ Gall-Peters Projection: Preserves area but distorts shape. -​ Goode’s Homolosine Projection: Reduces shape distortion but splits landmasses. -​ Winkel Projection: Balances shape and area distortion. 1.5 Place & Region: Unique Locations Place: A Specific Location -​ Toponyms: Names given to places, influenced by history, culture, or physical features. -​ Site: Physical characteristics of a place (e.g., climate, soil, elevation). -​ Situation: A place’s location relative to others (e.g., New York as a major port city). Types of Regions 1.​ Formal (Uniform) Region: Shared characteristics (e.g., Montana, where the same laws apply statewide). 2.​ Functional (Nodal) Region: Centered around a focal point (e.g., TV broadcast areas, metro areas). 3.​ Vernacular (Perceptual) Region: Based on cultural perceptions (e.g., "Midwest" in the U.S.). 1.6 Globalization: How Places Interact Globalization of Culture & Economy -​ Cultural globalization: Homogenization of global trends (e.g., McDonald's, social media).  -​ Economic globalization: Transnational corporations (TNCs) drive global economic integration. -​ Local diversity still exists: Some cultures resist globalization. Spatial Association -​ Strong association: Features closely related (e.g., opioid crisis maps). -​ Weak association: Features randomly distributed. 1.7 Space: Distribution of Features Three Properties of Distribution 1.​ Density: How often something occurs in space. 2.​ Concentration: Clustered vs. dispersed distribution. 3.​ Pattern: Geometric arrangement of features (e.g., grid-like city layouts). Examples -​ COVID-19 & Social Distancing: Density and concentration affected transmission. -​ Baseball Team Relocations: Distribution patterns changed over time. 1.8 Identity & Geography Gender, Ethnicity, & Sexuality -​ Gender roles affect mobility and economic participation. -​ Ethnicity clusters in certain regions (e.g., Black Lives Matter protests in urban areas). -​ LGBTQ+ spaces: Some cities have strong LGBTQ+ communities. 1.9 Inequality in Geography Gender Inequality -​ No country has equal income for men and women. - Gender Gap Index measures economic, political, and social disparities. Economic Inequality -​ Core-periphery model: Developed vs. developing countries. -​ Income gap: Growing both globally and within countries. 1.10 How Are Places Connected? Types of Diffusion 1.​ Relocation Diffusion: Migration spreads cultural traits. 2.​ Expansion Diffusion: a.​ Hierarchical: Spread from authority figures (e.g., fashion trends). b.​ Contagious: Rapid spread (e.g., viral content).  c.​ Stimulus: Concept spreads but adapts (e.g., Apple’s iPhone features copied by competitors). Space-Time Compression -​ Technology reduces travel and communication time. Networks & Interaction -​ Hub-and-spoke airline models connect cities efficiently. 1.11 Sustainability & Human-Environment Interaction Three Pillars of Sustainability 1.​ Environment: Conservation vs. depletion. 2.​ Social: Sustainable consumer choices. 3.​ Economic: Resource value and trade. Human Impact: Climate Change -​ Rising sea levels threaten cities like Miami and the Netherlands. -​ Doughnut Economics: Balances social needs and ecological limits. Possibilism vs. Environmental Determinism -​ Possibilism: Humans adapt and modify their environment. -​ Determinism (outdated): Environment dictates human activity. 1.12 Connection: Sustainability 1.12.1 The Three Pillars of Sustainability ​ Sustainability is the use of Earth’s resources in a way that ensures their availability for future generations. The United Nations (UN) defines sustainability based on three interconnected pillars: 1.​ Environment Pillar -​ Focuses on the sustainable use and management of natural resources. -​ Conservation: Using resources responsibly to allow natural replenishment (e.g., sustainable forestry). -​ Preservation: Protecting resources without human interaction (e.g., national parks). -​ Example: Trees are conserved when logged slower than their regrowth rate. 2.​ Social Pillar -​ Humans depend on resources for food, clothing, and shelter. -​ Sustainable practices involve choosing environmentally friendly products (e.g., organic cotton over synthetic fibers). -​ Consumer choices impact local economies and global sustainability.  3.​ Economic Pillar -​ Sustainability is tied to market value and economic feasibility. -​ Natural resources are valued based on supply and demand. -​ Higher demand increases prices, while greater supply lowers them. 1.12.2 Case Study: The Everglades -​ Example of all three sustainability pillars. -​ Originally, the Everglades was a shallow freshwater ecosystem. -​ Human activities (levees, canals) altered the environment for economic and urban development. -​ Negative consequences: Pollution, habitat loss, and water quality issues. -​ Today, efforts focus on restoring and preserving the ecosystem. 1.12.3 Ecology & Ecosystems Geographers classify Earth’s environment into four interconnected systems: 1.​ Atmosphere -​ Thin layer of gases surrounding Earth. -​ Influences weather and climate patterns. 2.​ Hydrosphere -​ All water on Earth (oceans, lakes, rivers, groundwater, glaciers). -​ Water cycle: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation. 3.​ Lithosphere -​ Earth’s crust and upper mantle. -​ Includes landforms, soil, and minerals. 4.​ Biosphere -​ All living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms). -​ Depends on interactions with the other three spheres. 1.12.4 Climate Change & Sustainability -​ Human activity is the primary cause of modern climate change. -​ Global warming: Earth’s average temperature has risen 1.5°C (2.8°F) over the past century. -​ Effects include rising sea levels, extreme weather, and biodiversity loss. -​ Some regions face food shortages, economic decline, and forced migration. -​ The UN warns that urgent action is needed to prevent irreversible damage. 1.12.5 Top Climate Risks by 2040 -​ Increased frequency of hurricanes, wildfires, and droughts. -​ Rising sea levels threaten coastal cities (e.g., Miami, New York, Amsterdam). -​ Climate-related economic and social instability. 1.13 Humans & Their Environment 1.13.1 Cultural Ecology: Human-Environment Interaction Cultural ecology is the geographic study of human-environment relationships. Geographers analyze: 1.​ How people adjust to their environment. 2.​ How they modify it to suit their needs. 1.13.2 Environmental Determinism vs. Possibilism 1.​ Environmental Determinism (Outdated) -​ Proposed that environmental conditions shape human culture and behavior. -​ Suggested that some climates produce more advanced civilizations than others. -​ Rejected due to its Eurocentric and overly simplistic views. 2.​ Possibilism (Modern View) -​ Acknowledges that the environment influences humans, but people have the ability to adapt and modify it. -​ Technology and culture determine how societies interact with their environment. -​ Example: Agriculture varies based on local climates, but **humans create irrigation** to farm in dry regions. 1.13.3 Case Study: Sustainable Ecosystem in the Netherlands The Netherlands has successfully modified its environment using two major methods: 1.​ Polders -​ Polders are areas of reclaimed land from the sea through drainage. -​ 16% of Dutch land consists of polders. -​ Used mainly for agriculture and reducing food imports. 2.​ Dikes -​ Dikes are barriers built to prevent flooding from the North Sea. -​ The Zuider Zee project converted a saltwater sea into a freshwater lake. -​ The Delta Project created dams and barriers to protect against floods. 3.​ Current Adaptations -​ Climate change is raising sea levels, increasing the risk of flooding. -​ Instead of expanding polders and dikes, the Netherlands now focuses on reducing climate change causes. 1.13.4 Doughnut Economics: A Sustainable Model -​ Developed by economist Kate Raworth. -​ Balances human needs with planetary limits. -​ The inner ring represents essential needs (food, housing, education).  -​ The outer ring represents ecological boundaries that must not be exceeded (pollution, biodiversity loss). 1.13.5 Future Climate Challenges: Surging Seas -​ Sea levels expected to rise 1 meter (36 inches) by 2050. -​ 150 million people live in areas at risk of flooding. -​ Example: Miami, Florida, has already experienced increased flooding. 1.13.6 Future of Sustainability -​ Cities like Amsterdam are redesigning infrastructure for eco-friendly urban development. -​ Global efforts focus on renewable energy, reducing waste, and adapting to climate change.