History Winter Prébac Past Paper PDF 2025

History Prébac 22nd January 2025 Prébac structure 1. Part 1:EU o Source A: explain the meaning o Source B and C: compare & contrast o Source B and...

History Prébac 22nd January 2025 Prébac structure 1. Part 1:EU o Source A: explain the meaning o Source B and C: compare & contrast o Source B and C: evaluate o Source D: synthesis: summary of the topic o Little intro o Summarize all sources quickly o Conclude through source 4 2. Part 2→Exercise 1: 2 definitions; Cold War; comprehensive (2-3 lines) 3. Part 2→Exercise 2: explain specific aspect of Cold War; don’t lose too much time 4. Part 2B→2 essays on 2 different questions on cold war; Cold War Cold War (12th March 1947-26th December 1991)→Period of geopolitical tension for ideological dominance in the US (capitalism) vs USSR (communism) Ideology→System of ideals which form through political and eco. theory o Narratives often form (always present in politics), that motivate movement and keep it going Capitalism→economic system where private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that serves best interests of society→Motive to make a profit o Painted as freedom and Communism as a threat Communism “classless society”→all property + wealth owned & shared by community→no individual ownership o Painted as true equality and Capitalism as imperialism US supported through western bloc & USSR supported through eastern bloc Proxy wars→2 superpowers supporting opposite agents in regional wars, w/o official conflict between the 2 Notable events: Nuclear arms race Struggle for dominance expressed through→ psychological warfare, propaganda, espionage, embargoes (economic sanctions), technological competitions 1940’s: Forming ideologies Important definitions/historical context: (Hannah Arendt) Totalitarianism→Form of gov. that asserts total control over its citizens, by suppressing traditional institutions and individualism o Features: Supported by mass (through manipulation), Cult of personality, fear/terror, secret police, propaganda, violence, radical ideology, central control, organization Propaganda→Communication that influences and furthers agenda; selective with facts to get desired emo. Response  Collectivization→communist eco. System: Organization of all production and industry into gov. ownership→often disrupts agricultural production and workers rights→famine o Utilized by Stalin(totalitarian): 5 year plan (after 1924)→industrialized eco. Doctrine→set of beliefs that cannot be questioned Yalta conference 4th-11th February 1945 o Attendants: Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill ▪ French leader Charles de Gaulle not invited (same 4 Potsdam)→resentment o Germany ▪ Stalin wants it to become rural country +advocated 4 heavy reparations to rebuild USSR ▪ Kept east DE under strict control: buffer zone against the west ▪ Plans 4 Berlin→absorb into eastern bloc ▪ Slowly undermine western positions ▪ Formation of socialist state: Community party of DE + SPD = Socialist unity party (SED) ▪ Anti-fascist, „democratic “regime→under Soviet control ▪ Factories, equipment, managers, technicians and skilled personnel moved to USSR ▪ Stalin hoped 4 a unified denazified (hunted down past officials) DE aligned with Soviet interests→disrupted by Marshall Plan ▪ Divided in 4 zones ▪ Churchill lobbied FR to be one of the sectors ▪ 3 western zones (US, FR, BR)→more developed ▪ 18th June 1948: Deutsche Mark→eco. Consolidation ▪ Denied by Stalin→tension ▪ Unified 1949→West Germany: Federal Republic of Germany ▪ East Germany: German Democratic Republic (GDR) formalized by Stalin as retaliation ▪ Nürnberg Trials→ Punished war criminals o Free elections in all countries, after war o Eastern sphere of Europe under Soviet influence (USSR) ▪ All Eastern countries made communist (USSR puppet gov.)→buffer zones ▪ “Iron curtain”-Churchill→Allies relationship broke up ▪ Allowed control of foreign policies at the edges of Eastern sphere ▪ Stalin wanted to move USSR border west Potsdam Conference July-August 1945 o Stalin, Trueman, Attlee (New UK PM) ▪ Roosevelt dies in April o Harry S. Trueman: new US president ▪ Authorized Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings ▪ Anti-communist; suspicious of Stalin  ▪ Fear of “Domino effect”: Thought Stalin wants to take over Europe (communism spreads more to west)→ “Trueman doctrine”→“Marshall plan” ▪ Trueman Doctrine 1947→Containment policy to curb Soviet influence ▪ $400 mil. Financial aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communism ▪ No direct military force, financial aid + free market 4 e.g., Greece & Turkey ▪ Marshall Plan 1947-52→ $17 billion economic aid to rebuild Europe ▪ Fostered capitalism and countered Soviet influence ▪ Political move: Not given to east ▪ US Reveals Testing of A-Bomb→Stalin had spies that already knew o Disagreements over DE + reparations First Proxy wars→UK gradually ceded leadership to US (shift in global power) o Context: Post-WW2 reconstruction of resources + eco. o 2nd Context: Communism seemed appealing→eco. Equality Greek civil war 1946-49: British and US intervention o Context: liberated from Nazi occupation in 1944→Communist-backed EAM/ELAS resistance vs monarchy; supported by Western Allies o 2nd Context: Fear of Domino Effect + Containment →BR + US wanted to stabilize Greece o 1. BR aided from 1944-17 against communists→couldn’t afford at end→US leadership through Trueman Doctrine o 2. Communist forces defeated in 1949→Greece aligned with West→1952 join NATO Turkey→geostrategic importance (buffer state against USSR) o Context: BR maintained Turkey neutrality during WW2→western alignment o 1. USSR wanted control of Turkey Strait→US sent battleship for defence o Modernization: BR + US aided Military + economy through Marshall Plan→defensive preparation 4 Cold War o 2. 1952 joined NATO→cements role against USSR Iran→vital supplier of oil to BR through Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) + strategic position o Context: BR + USSR invaded Iran during WW2 to secure oil fields + supply routes o 2nd Context: BR supported pro-Western Monarch Shah to prevent USSR influence ▪ 1953 coup: BR + US orchestrated coup against PM Mossadegh after nationalizing AIOC→restored Shah’s power→ensured Western control over oil and alignment with anti-communist policies until 1979 Islamic Revl. (anti-Western theocracy) Berlin Blockade 1948-49→Stalin cuts west Berlin off; US/UK airlifted supplies o Objective→force western Allies out + consolidate control over whole city, prevent creation of West DE  o Timeline: 1. 25th march: Stalin restricts western military and passenger traffic to east Berlin 2. 21st June: east Berlin halts shipment of DE mark and sends back 3. 24th June: severed land and water connections between east- and west Berlin 4. 25th June: east stops provisions to west Berlin ▪ Berlin Airlift: US and BR send airlifts to west Berlin; power show-off + protect essential capital→277,804 flights + 2.3 mil. Tons 5. May 12th, 1949: Blockade ended due to embargoes on strategic eastern exports→fear of political upheaval Validation 4 containment→The eastern Bloc rise in Communism o (all countries will be part of the Warsaw Pact) o 1947 Poland: communists in gov. Coalition + exiled non-communists o 1947 Hungary: Communist were largest single party: imprisoned opposition & attacked church leaders o Czechoslovakia: left-wing coalition wins election in ‘45; abolished monarchy o Romania: communist PM left-wing coalition in ‘45: communist leaders execute opposition o Albania: Communists win election by far o Cominform ‘47: coordinate activities of communist parties; Stalin has more control ▪ Party of Yugoslavia: Tito expelled ‘48 o Comecon ‘49: response to Marshall plan by eastern bloc ▪ Strengthens economic ties (trade) in eastern Europe ▪ East Germany joins in 1950 NATO Formation 1949: “North Atlantic Treaty Organization”; Military alliance o Intent to enforce Containment→counter USSR o Currently 32 members; mix of west and eastern countries o Article 5: any attack against one or more members, will be seen as a collective attack on all members 1950’s: Eastern Bloc developments Important ideology→McCarthyism: US senator McCarthy spread anti-communist Hysteria after Red Scare (communist influence in Korea and China)→”communism” associated with anything bad o Consequences→Fearmongering, curtailing of free speech, McCarthy’s accusations w/o proof led to his censure in 1954 Korean war 1950-53: North is communist (China/USSR) backed & South is American backed o Context: 1910-1945 Korea before WW2 under Japanese control o 38th parallel divides Korea into south and North o 1. June 25th 1950 Surprise invasion by Kim II Sung (north) with USSR support →took Seoul o 2. Emergency UN force (16 countries)→pushed North Korean out of Seoul  o 3. China started to get involved pushed them right back to parallel→Nukes were considered but denied o July 27th 1953 End in Stalemate: maintain division along 38th o China context: Mao Zedong (last emperor)→totalitarian + anti-capitalist ▪ Chinese civil war 1927-1950: Republic of China vs Peoples Liberation Army (communist): Mao Zedong ▪ Zedong→5-year eco. Plan→Great Famine (30-50 mil. Dead) + Collectivization (stopped foreign trade + redistributed land) ▪ 1949-56 Sino-Soviet Relations History examples ▪ ‘49: Mao allies himself with USSR→signed mutual agreement; international front ▪ Stalin dealt with Europe and Mao with anti-colonial agents in South Asia ▪ ‘50: Sino Soviet Treaty China receives military support from USSR + USSR gains eco. Benefits from China ▪ ‘52: China supports North Korea ▪ ‘55: USSR offers nuclear powers to China 1952 US election→Eisenhower (anti-communist) Stalin’s death 5th March 1953: died of stroke; no doctor wanted to help (were afraid due to purges) o Last days was paranoid o “Puddle of indignity” for 3 days o Purge of Doctors (most were Jewish): Feared “cosmopolitanism” (worldly)→ feared Jews Possible Successors: o Lavrentiy Beria (Stalin's first lieutenant): sexual predator o Deputy Georgy Malenkov o Nikita Khrushchev; revolutionist ▪ Makes peace with Tito (leader of Yugoslavia: dictator) ▪ Dissolves Cominform→keeps Comecon + Warsaw pact ▪ 1955 Warsaw Pact (Soviet NATO)→ensured that rebels would be dealt with by other members o Causes: leaving soviet sphere or moderating policies o Implemented after West Germany joined NATO ▪ Popular in Russia + US ▪ Went to US in ‘59; charmed the people ▪ Withdraws troops from Austria for neutrality ▪ 1956: Repudiation of Stalin’s cult of personality in speech “The Cult of Personality and its Consequences” ▪ Argues that “cult of personality” goes against Marx ▪ Lenin's testament about Stalin’s Character ▪ Stalin violated party norms of communist party ▪ Stalin's violence through secret police (NKVD) ▪ Consequences: Sino-Soviet Split (formalized in 1961); Mao doesn’t think he’s fit for the job + Nikita gains favor against Malenkov  ▪ Wants to peacefully coexist with the west ▪ Effect on eastern block ▪ Poland, Poznan workers strike ‘56; Gomulka (spokesperson): becomes president; Poland has to be loyal to Moscow, so Gomulka can stay president ▪ Budapest population uprising ‘56; Imre Nagy as president; demand 16 points (anti-Soviet + wanting independence) ▪ 1st November Nagy withdraws from Warsaw pact ▪ USSR military invasion of Hungary ▪ Nagy deported to Romania and killed 1960’s: Proxy wars & major moves Technological warfare: US (advanced espionage) vs USSR (advanced space tech) o USSR launched first satellite (1957), had more missiles, sent first astronaut into space Economic Division of Germany o West Germany ▪ PM→Konrad Adenauer→wanted unified Germany ▪ grew under the Marshall Plan; 15 years of western investment ▪ NATO provided intermediate range missiles ▪ Berlin: 2 mil people + General Clay was a hero: directed all airlifts fueling WBerlins food supplies ▪ Showcase of successful capitalism model o East Germany ▪ remained under Soviet exploitation ▪ Chancellor Walter Ulbricht→ Khrushchev’s friend ▪ Eco. depression: soviet exploitation excused as “war reparations” ▪ Berlin: 1 mil people ▪ Communist/Stalinist→“Socialist Fatherland” o Physical division→Barbed wires, watchtowers, minefields except for Berlin ▪ Berlin→Unrestricted free movement ▪ Work was in west ▪ Marienfelde: airport 4 refugees, they were flown to west DE ▪ mass-migration; 2.8 mil. Till 1961 Berlin Wall 10th November 1958: Khrushchev says military occupation in Berlin shouldn’t end o Berlin should be free from west→ West berlin should join USSR o 2 weeks later: Ultimatum: get out of Berlin or let USSR sign treaty with GDR to take over all of Berlin ▪ Response by US: Eisenhower invites Khrushchev 1959 ▪ Khrushchev is extremely successful and shows power through largest aircraft ▪ Incident May-June ‘60: Gary Powers aircraft (U2 spy plane) shot down while flying reconnaissance mission on USSR airspace: He got captured→Tightens US/USSR relations  ▪ Wall erected to stop east Germans from fleeing the West 1961 “Grenze geschlossen”→displays Soviet failure ▪ JFK: “Democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in.”: CUNT ▪ US diplomat denied access ▪ October 1961: General Clay sends armed soldiers to escort him ▪ 10 US tanks pulled up to Checkpoint Charlie ▪ 33 soviet tanks come ▪ 16h standoff ▪ “Only a mad man would start war over Berlin”-N.K. 20th January 1961 JFK is elected President: young democrat Cuban missile crisis 16th-28th October 1962 Context: Cuban revolution (‘53-’59); The Monroe Doctrine; US doesn’t allow for Europe to intervene with Latin America, but they allow it for themselves o Cuban History o 1861-1865 American civil war ▪ Pro slavery people want to own Cuban island o After civil war: question posed: “should they liberate or own it” ▪ Spanish-American war: America support Cubas liberation from Spain o US semi owns it: Cuba is “free” but Us is allowed to intervene and control foreign policy + economy; Cuba feels suppressed o After Cuban uprising: Cuba liberates itself and is friendly with US o New authoritarian Cuban president Batista (1952) ▪ Nationalism vs communism ▪ US supports Batista; he supports US interests (like sugar) ▪ Soviets support revolutionary leader Fidel Castro (lawyer from wealthy family: critical of inequalities in Cuba) ▪ 26th of July movement (guerilla campaign: surprise and hide (“hit and run”) attacks; hide in jungles) ▪ “Hit and run” attacks need popular support ▪ Lieutenant Che Guevara joins him ▪ Almost WW3 since US blocks Soviet missiles ▪ Victory over Batista ‘59: after years of guerilla warfare and growing support 4 Castro o Castro declared Cuba as socialist state ‘61, aligned with USSR ▪ Symbol of resistance against American imperialism in Latin America ▪ Nationalizes 1bn dollar investment from US ▪ Eisenhower blocks sugar exports ‘60 ▪ Khruschev buys all sugar; becomes friends with Castro ▪ USSR puts nuclear missiles in Cuba ▪ US has them in Turkey ▪ MAD: Mutually assured destruction o Bay of Pigs 17th-20th April 1961 by JFK; CIA steered military operation to overturn Castro; no popular uprising (huge fiasco) o October 1962: USSR nuclear weapons to be removed from Cuba  ▪ Solution: quarantine Cuba through US naval ships: embargo o 27th October 1962: Vasili Arkhipov prevented a Russian Submarine from launching nuclear Torpedo; prevented WW3 o 2 letters from Khrushchev; ended up in US and USSR removing their missiles from Turkey and Cuba + no invasion of Cuba; Turkey missiles were a secret o Consequences: ▪ Kennedy (viewed as heroic)→Killed 22/11/1963 ▪ Khrushchev deposed in 1964→Brezhnev as new leader o Impacts on Cold War ▪ Everybody is scared: The Red Hotline; direct communications link between US and USSR Vietnam War 1955-1975 North Vietnam (USSR & China) vs South Vietnam (US & Allies) Vietnam divided at the 17th parallel Ho Chi Min: anti colonialism; helped found the French communist party o 1954 defeats French troops (colonialists) o Mao’s adviser→ Supported by Mao and Soviets o Founder of Viet Minh (liberation movement vs Japanese movement) o North Vietnam President Diem (American puppet): catholic o South Vietnam o Anti-communist o Crackdown on Buddhist community (90% of the pop. is Buddhist) ▪ June 1963: Buddhist sets himself on fire; famous picture o 1963 murdered; Kennedy thought he would js be deposed Tonkin Gulf Incident (August 1964); alleged attacks on US destroyers by North Vietnamese o President Johnson declares war Elephant and the Grasshopper: o Operation rolling thunder: extensive bombing targeting North o Search and destroy missions: Ground troops employed in Viet Cong ▪ Resistance: guerilla warfare (jungle: Viet Cong) o Key Battles: la Drang Valley ‘65: 1st major engagement between the 2 Turning point: Tet Offensive January ‘68: coordinated attack by North Vietnamese on 5 major cities in the south o Outcome: US won tactically: loss in confidence of US leadership o Impact on perception: gap between official reports and reality of war’s progress: anti-war sentiment (hippie movement) Vietnamization: policy introduced by Nixon to gradually reduce US troops and train south Vietnamese o Limited success in empowering southern forces; struggled w/o US support o Paris Peace Accords ‘73: ceasefire agreement and withdrawal of US forces Fall of Saigon ‘75: Unification of Vietnam under communist control Why the US lost… o They never really wanted the win o Question of economic benefits  o No internal US support: real time media showed US brutality (Televised war) ▪ Counterculture: “make Love not War” ▪ Major demonstration: March on Washington ‘67 ▪ Led to Vietnamization and withdrawal o Vietnamese determination o Environmental challenges Impact on cold war→US bettered relations with China; Détente, reassessment of containment, SALT 1 and 2 The Prague Spring o Prague 1968: eco crises, food shortage ▪ ‘62-’63: GDP falls ▪ ‘66 Novotny (then president of Czechoslovakia): decentralizes economy: more power to local managers Market socialism: compromise between socialist planning and free enterprise; economy driven by mechanism supply and demand o 1968: Dubcek: 2000-word manifesto (several intellectuals) ▪ No censorship, Multiple parties, Free elections o Fear of “reverse domino effect”: Fear of Czechoslovakia going more liberal making others more liberal; Gomulka and Ulbricht repress student demonstrations o The Brezhnev Doctrine: called for intervention in any Eastern Bloc nation “compromising soviet rule”, by the whole Warsaw Pact countries ▪ Seizes airport of Prague ▪ Brezhnev→more Warsaw pact engagement, one-party system, more censorship 1970’s: Détente (“relaxation) era Drivers: Vietnam war, Sino-soviet split, Cuban missile crisis, the red hotline, checkpoint Charlie, economic drain due to military spending 1968 Nuclear nonproliferation treaty enters force in 1970 o Nonproliferation: Control spread of nuclear weapons o Nuclear disarmament, Peaceful use of nuclear energy o Signed by US, USSR, UK and later 191 countries Anti-Ballistic missile treaties o SALT 1: Helsinki 1972: limited countries to only 2 sites for ballistic missiles ▪ Outcomes: non-confrontational relations between US and USSR 3 main principles: world peace, no alternative to peaceful coexistence, restraint in mutual relations o SALT 2: Vienna ‘79: US president Carter (dem.) vs Brezhnev ▪ Numerical equality in nuclear warheads + cap ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) and SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missiles) ▪ USSR invades Afghanistan (complicates things) o (Ballistic missile: high arching trajectory)  ▪ Can be stopped by anti-ballistic missile Ostpolitik: autonomous development o Willy Brandt new west-German PM: wanted to mend east and west-German relations ▪ Stopped Hallstein Doctrine: Hallstein (Adenauers aid) implemented that FRG authorities couldn’t communicate with anyone who acknowledged GDR ▪ Didn’t care about permission from US ▪ went to east Germany and Moscow ▪ Acknowledges borders of USSR and Poland ▪ Basic Treaty: East Berlin 21/12/1972 Both Germanies joined UN + established normal trade Reunification is a long-term goal ▪ Helsinki Accords 1975: recognized European sovereign borders + promoted cooperation, human rights→influence cold war dissident movement ‘79-’89 Soviet Afghan War Afghanistan o rugged landscape with mountains, between central and south Asia, Diverse ethnic groups o Tribal (based on kinship) and societal structures against centralized gov. o Context: 20th century: King Amanullah wants to modernize country ▪ ‘65 Peoples democratic party of Afghanistan founded (PDPA): Marxist Leninist orientation (didn’t work→industrialization) Grew in popularity against king ▪ ‘73 Daud’s coup: cousin who seized power from King and ended monarchy ▪ ‘78 The Saur revl.: widespread rebellions by conservative and rural groups (Mujahideen), for radical reforms, e.g. wanted nationalization of eco. Daud overthrown, Planned eco., Top-down political system, No proletariat! ‘79 PDPA calls 4 USSR support o Cold war triggered: Proxy war ▪ USSR support communist party: advanced technology ▪ US supports Mujahideen: guerilla tactics ▪ USSR had difficulty with terrain ▪ Tribes were united through invasion ▪ Outcome… USSR leaves due to cost; weakened it Instable Afghanistan 1980’s: “End” US economic crisis 70s →Stagflation (high inflation, unemployment) Ronald Reagan elected  o “Raeganomics” economic liberalism: market shouldn’t have any boundaries ▪ Tax cuts for the rich ▪ Deregulates laws in the market ▪ Reduces gov. Spending (social programs) ▪ Monetary control (maintains high interest rates) ▪ Supply-side economics: “trickle-down economics” o Foreign policy ▪ Increase military spending ▪ Villainized communist USSR; financed anti-communist movements ▪ Wants more engagement from NATO ▪ Escalated arms race between USSR and US Rising tensions in USSR o Many countries either steer away from communism or join it o Growing awareness of western prosperity o Chernobyl disaster ‘86 o Long-term causes… ▪ Outdated eco system ▪ Soviet morale decrease: Unhappiness with constant censorship ▪ Growing nationalism in soviet republics (e.g., Baltic states) ▪ Generational shift (Gorbachev) o March 1989: Mikhail Gorbachev elected: more liberal and open to economic restructuring ▪ Wanted to decentralize economy: Limited market mechanisms ▪ Eastern bloc nations start slowly introducing multi-nominee elections (perestroika (economic restructuring) glasnost (political transparency; multiple candidates)) Perestroika (failed due to poor management) + Glasnost (allowed for public unrest) ▪ allowed free speech, No censorship, Wanted better relationship with US o Consequences ▪ Eastern European states inspired by soviet reform start rebelling: “The Sinatra Doctrine”; soviet foreign policy Fall of USSR o November 9th, 1989: Berlin wall falls ▪ Rising movements from east Germans demanding to travel west ▪ THE short-term cause: Miscommunication by east German official that the borders were open ▪ Resulted in DE reunification in 1990 o 1989 elections: Boris Yeltsin won in the Republic of Russia→Russian Federation sidelined Gorbachev o 17th March 1991: Referendum on preserving the USSR ▪ 80% voted yes on keeping it ▪ 6 countries boycotted (3 Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova) ▪ Failed coup 1991 by hardline communists kidnapping Gorbachev ▪ Belavezha Accords December 1991: dismantled USSR by Yeltsin with support of Belarus and Ukraine  Established CIS (commonwealth of independent states) Soviet Union’s authority over former states dissolved Official Dissolution: December 25th, 1991 o Gorbachev resigned o Flag replaced by Russian tricolor o Alma-Ata Protocols ▪ CIS established as voluntary association ▪ Legal end of USSR ▪ Affirmed freedom of free states 1990’s: Aftermath Important definitions: Multilateralism→Different countries work together to solve problem Unilateralism→ Acting alone as one party→ US willingness to act alone when multilateral (multiple parties) action was constrained: e.g., Iraq War ‘03 o Unipolar→dominated by single state’s military, economy, culture Neoliberalism→market-oriented policies; states shouldn’t control markets e.g., eliminate price controls, lower trade barriers through e.g. privatization Globalization→Businesses developing international influence Neocolonialism→control by state other a normally independent state (usually former colony) through indirect means Emerging issues o Ethnic conflicts (former Yugoslavia, Rwanda) o Non-State actors (terrorism + transnational organizations) reshape power dynamics o Neoliberalism & Globalization Trends in global politics: Unilateralism, Bilateralism and Multilateralism Unipolar US Interventions→”The US as the World’s Policeman” o Humanitarian Interventions: o 1991 1st Gulf war: US backed by UN expels Iraqi out of Kuwait ▪ Seen as success of Multilateralism o Challenges to US authority→ China, India and EU ▪ Growing resentment of US power o 1993: Failed US intervention to stabilize famine-stricken and war-torn Somalia o Bosnia (1995): NATO-led efforts to end ethnic cleansing through military strikes and peace agreements o Challenges to US authority: ▪ Rise of regional powers like China, India, and the EU. ▪ Growing resentment of US dominance in Global South ▪ Military dominance: Presence of US bases worldwide viewed as neo-colonial control Use of drones and unilateral strikes in sovereign nations (e.g. Pakistan)  Cultural Hegemony→Perception of US cultural dominance through media, technology, consumerism→undermining local identity ▪ BRICS: Emerging eco. (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) unite in opposition to perceived Western and US dominance Advocation for multipolar world order with equitable representation in global institutions Osama Bin Ladens letter o Antisemitic sentiment→Jewish people control the monetary capital and by that control the US o Accuses US of exploiting resources (oil), imposing western values, supporting the “vulture” companies over anything European Union (1951-current) Important definitions: Euroscepticism→ Belief that the EU has too much influence, arguing for reducing EU powers or opposing membership (e.g., UK’s BREXIT) Sovereignty→inter-state system supreme + independent power of government to self- govern make own laws, and control own affairs without external interference Agency→ “to act”: systems that create social movements + transformation of system Robert Schuman: “Architect” of the European Integration + Jean Monnet: “glue” of European Integration o Robert Schuman: Lawyer: French-German culture o Jean Monnet: Deputy secretary of league of nations: good International cooperation Konrad Adenauer: Built strong West Germany to fight against soviet east Germany Context: Post WW2→need 4 economic reconstructions + preventing conflict 9th May 1950 Schuman Declaration: French foreign minister announces European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)→political and economic integration o Treaty of Paris 1951→Coal and Steel Community ▪ 1st member states: West Germany, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Italy, Luxemburg o 1st Supernationalist institution→limited extent for only coal and steel Treaties of Rome 25th March 1957→builds on success on ECSC o 1st treaty→ European economic community (EEC): no internal tariffs, borders, aims to improve agriculture ▪ enhanced economic integration and growth→offering immense opportunities for citizens and businesses. ▪ requires robust mechanisms to address disparities, manage migration flows, and harmonize regulations o 2nd Treaty: European atomic energy community established→peaceful use of nuclear energy + single market trade  1962 CAP: “Common Agricultural Policy”→Ensures a stable, affordable food supply, supports/increase farmers' incomes, and promotes rural development. o Famine since post-ww2 o Single market for free movement of agriculture produce o Debate about cost of CAP: high food prices o All funding for agriculture comes from the EU itself→EU budget 35% o Taxes→100 euros a year o Subsidizing agriculture→farmers are dependent on nature, have rural areas depend on them, vulnerable to markets o 3rd world countries famers can’t compete with EU ones Merger Treaty 1965: European Commission→proposes laws, members get picked by heads of state o 3 institutions merged: ECSC, Euratom, EEC o 3 institutions created: Council of Ministers (check proposal from commission), Parliament (represent people; grows in power), Court of Justice Intergovernmentalism vs Supranationalism o Power of EU policy over national policy→EEC had more power o Supranationalism→multiple countries delegate authority to higher institution →makes decisions binding on all member states→overrides sovereignty ▪ E.g., European Union and the United Nations o Intergovernmentalism→system of cooperation between sovereign states: decisions are made by agreement among participating governments, w/o transferring authority to higher supranational body ▪ include the United Nations and NATO ▪ VETO power: state can block any proposal by any party De Gaulle vetoes UK application→“Europe de Parties “: proposes EU as community of sovereign nation-states; didn’t agree with supernationalist policies o De Gaulle→very pro FR stance + general in WW1: criticized UK + US relations + fear of Franco-German Relations weakening o 1965 “Empty chair crisis” Gaulle boycotted EU institutions due to EEC policies o January 1966: Luxembourg compromise: veto power + unanimity vote to member states on EEC policies that threaten national interests ▪ CAP reform 1973: Oil crises o “Glorious 30’s” since 1940s end o OPEC (middle eastern) vs oil companies (western)-->Opec raised prices ▪ Short term: showed EEC weakness + dependency on oil + energy- saving campaigns ▪ Long term: imports from other countries (USSR + Mexico), alternative energy (nuclear (France), geothermal (Ireland) Concept of Deepening→increasing integration and cooperation among existing members through reinforcement of policies to achieve similar levels of human rights Period between ’73 and ’13→Concept of Widening: Expansions  o 1985→Schengen Agreement: allows passport-free travel across participating European countries→ borderless zone for citizens/travelers (Not all EU countries are part of Schengen, and some non-EU countries (e.g., Norway) participate) ▪ Ireland does not participate cuz of flights + Romania o Jacques Delores: President of European Commission: Single European Act 1986→implements free trade market: no borders, eco. + social cohesion, strengthen European monetary system (EMS) ▪ ”common market”→EU’s Market based on 4 freedoms (Free movement of…) Goods, services, capital, people o Tensions between sovereignty and supranationalism→central in EU debates ▪ Different political cultures; e.g., Thatcher vs Delors o Thatcher “Iron Lady”: Neoliberalism ▪ Wanted free unregulated market but reduced contribution to EEC ▪ Ban regulations, trade unions and welfare ▪ Criticized CAP in 1984 for 80% spending ▪ Rejected supernationalist policy; critiqued Jack Delores (with Raegan) th 7 February Treaty of Maastricht 1992: recognized the current state of EU; established common currency; some countries did not accept it o Qualified majority voting’s, increased parliament's power o Transformed EEC to EU o Introduced economic and monetary union (EMU) as long-term goal; no EMS→start of the euro o Established pillars of cooperation in foreign policy, defense + justice→example of discipline o Introduced EU citizenship→Parliament (approve laws) legislative powers strengthened o Principle of subsidiarity→ laws decided at EU level→ enforced in member states gov. individually o Controversy→UK secured opt-out options from EMU + states faced issues ratifying  o Criticism→”Honeymoon” phase: 5 years of discipline before countries started abusing it→ ”casino liberalism/financial innovation”: opportunity for countries like DE and FR to abuse power and avoid financial burden ▪ Political union needed due to different political cultures The Single Market: Borderless market by 1992 Copenhagen Criteria 1993→guide to accession for eligible country 1. Rule of Law (everyone is equal before the law): free press/elections, independent judiciary systems a. Challenges→Poland and Hungary democratic backslide 2. Human rights requirements→Challenges: discrimination against Roma communities in Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia 3. Functioning market economy→integrated into single market, country should be market based→challenges: economic disparities between east and west + Greece struggle with fiscal discipline 4. Ability to adopt EU laws and obligations; European commission monitors through infringement procedures→Challenges: Poland; conflict with national sovereignty o Challenges of expansion→integration of diverse economies and political cultures o Challenges: Euroscepticism + Rising nationalism/populism + Migration + Economic Stagnation (not flourishing) o Biggest challenge→foreign policy ▪ Balkan conflicts ‘90s ▪ High representative role→created by Treaty of Amsterdam (’99) and Lisbon Treaty; to mend problems from Maastricht Lisbon treaty: replaced failed EU institutions; enhanced democratic legitimacy, due to enlargement and helping the countries enhance parliamentary policy strengthened role of High representative for Foreign Affairs and security policy caused: citizens initiatives (allowing EU citizens to propose legislation) + increased centralization at expense of national sovereignty ▪ Ukraine Crisis Eligible country: Turkey o won’t join due to… o Would have more political powers (they're populist) + majority influence in Parliament due to population o Clash with Greece and Cyprus o Armenian genocide o HR issues Transitions (Europe from dictatorship→Democracy) Types of political regime:  o Authoritarian regime→restrict liberty of citizens + use propaganda to manipulate public opinion; not democratic o Democracy→direct participation of all citizens in political system ▪ “demos”: people + “kratos”: will ▪ Representative democracies→choose professional politicians to do governing ▪ Consolidated Democracy→institutions that represent everyone; acknowledges conflicts ▪ 4 characteristics: free/fair elections, accountable/removable elected officials, rule of law to all citizens, equality (Health, education, welfare) o Methods→police “monopoly of violence” + propaganda o Transitology→analyze transition from dictatorship to democracy ▪ Factors of transitions Internal factors: overextended military engagement in colonial wars, widespread discontent→PESC approach; Political, Economic, Social and cultural development External factors: decolonization, international pressure for democracy (EU) Agency Greece Case study o Background→The Greek Junta “The Regime of the Colonels” (Military dictatorship ’67-’74→anti-democratic ▪ Fall of Junta: Internal factors→eco. Instability, severe political repression, student uprising in ’73 (symbol of resistance) Agency→Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos overthrown by brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis External factors→European pressure (isolation), US initially supported but switched policy o ’81 Greece becomes a member (enlargement) Portugal Case study-Estado Novo o Minister of Finance Salazar recovers eco. →mild fascism o The Carnation Revolution (“bloodless”) ▪ Internal Factors→overextended military engagements in colonial Africa, discontent in population due to economic hardships + political oppression ▪ Agency→General Antonio de Spinola opposed continuation of colonial wars→military coup ▪ External factors→decolonization and internal pressure from democratic gov., return of political exiles ’86 joined the EU Case study: Francoist Spain o Context: Spanish civil war ’36-’39→’36Military coup from Franco against leftist gov. (was making progress); received support from Mussolini and Hitler  o ’39 Franco establishes military dictatorship→centralized power, anti- communism, nationalism, catholic church ▪ Autarky: eco. Self-sufficiency→eco. Isolation ▪ No one wanted to communicate with Spain after WW2 ▪ ’59 Plan de Estabilización→eco. + investment Growth ▪ Francos death ’75 Internal factors→authoritarian regime left power vaccum filled by King Juan Carlos I (facilitated shift to democracy) o Eco. Pressure + desire for modernization and democracy Agency→ King Juan Carlos I + Adolfo Suárez (PM) ▪ Suárez→political reforms (free elections, legalization of parties) ▪ ’77 General elections ▪ ’78 Spanish constitution→parliamentary monarchy with decentralized structure External Factors o ’86 joined EU ▪ Spanish transition Pacto del Olvido→avoided addressing Franco-era atrocities Established framework for Spain’s political pluralism, decentralization, integration into European institutions Poland case study: “Solidarity” o Poland Context: Extreme catholic presence (opposed atheist soviet ideology) ▪ Late 1970’s: Eco. Crisis + establishment of independent trade unions o Summer 1980’s strikes→Creation of “Solidarity” trade union; led by Lech Walesa→put forward 21 demands (e.g., end to censorship + higher wages + broadcasting catholic news services) ▪ 30th August 1980 PO gov. accepted all demands: Soviet fragility (no military employment, due to Afghan War) + playing 4 time (hoped union would collapse on itself) o Membership of “Solidarity” grew exponentially + had support of Catholic church o February 1981→Military General Jaruzelski took over→introduced martial law (control by military): censorship, curfew, imprisoned 10000 “Solidarity” members + Walesa o His. Context: Collapse of USSR + US embargoes on Poland after Détente o June 1989→Result of “Sinatra Doctrine”: Solidarity majority won in open elections o 1990→Lech Walesa is President