History Prébac 22nd January 2025 PDF

[History Prébac 22^nd^ January 2025]  Prébac structure  1. Part 1:EU  - Source A: explain the meaning  - Source B and C: compare & contrast   - Source B and C: evaluate  - Source D: synthesis: summary of the topic   - Little intro   - Summarize all sources quickly   - Conclud...

[History Prébac 22^nd^ January 2025]  Prébac structure  1. Part 1:EU  - Source A: explain the meaning  - Source B and C: compare & contrast   - Source B and C: evaluate  - Source D: synthesis: summary of the topic   - Little intro   - Summarize all sources quickly   - Conclude through source 4   2. Part 2àExercise 1: 2 definitions; Cold War; comprehensive (2-3 lines)    3. Part 2àExercise 2: explain specific aspect of Cold War; don't lose too much time   4. Part 2Bà2 essays on 2 different questions on cold war; Cold War   **Cold War (12^th^ March 1947-26^th^ December 1991)**à**Period of geopolitical tension for ideological dominance in the** **US (capitalism) vs USSR (communism)**  - IdeologyàSystem of ideals which form through political and eco. theory  - Narratives often form (always present in politics), that motivate movement and keep it going   - Capitalismàeconomic system where private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that serves best interests of societyà**Motive to make a profit**  - Painted as freedom and Communism as a threat   - Communism "classless society"àall property + wealth owned & shared by communityàno individual ownership  - Painted as true equality and Capitalism as imperialism   - US supported through western bloc & USSR supported through eastern bloc   - Proxy warsà2 superpowers supporting opposite agents in regional wars, w/o official conflict between the 2  - Notable events: Nuclear arms race  - Struggle for dominance expressed throughà psychological warfare, propaganda, espionage, embargoes (economic sanctions), technological competitions   **1940's: Forming ideologies **  Important definitions/historical context:  - **(Hannah Arendt) Totalitarianism**àForm of gov. that asserts total control over its citizens, by suppressing traditional institutions and individualism  - Features: Supported by mass (through manipulation), Cult of personality, fear/terror, secret police, propaganda, violence, radical ideology, central control, organization  - **Propaganda**àCommunication that influences and furthers agenda; selective with facts to get desired emo. Response   - **Collectivization**àcommunist eco. System: Organization of all production and industry into gov. ownershipàoften disrupts agricultural production and workers rightsàfamine  - Utilized by Stalin(totalitarian): 5 year plan (after 1924)àindustrialized eco.   - **Doctrine**àset of beliefs that cannot be questioned** **  - **Yalta conference 4th-11th February 1945**  - Attendants: Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill   - **French leader Charles de Gaulle not invited (same 4 Potsdam)àresentment **  - Germany   - Stalin wants it to become rural country +advocated 4 heavy reparations to rebuild USSR   - Kept east DE under strict control: buffer zone against the west   - Plans 4 Berlinàabsorb into eastern bloc   - Slowly undermine western positions  - Formation of socialist state: Community party of DE + SPD = Socialist unity party (SED)  - Anti-fascist, „democratic "regimeàunder Soviet control  - Factories, equipment, managers, technicians and skilled personnel moved to USSR   - **Stalin hoped 4 a unified denazified (hunted down past officials) DE aligned with Soviet interests**àdisrupted by Marshall Plan  - Divided in 4 zones   - Churchill lobbied FR to be one of the sectors    - 3 western zones (US, FR, BR)àmore developed  - 18^th^ June 1948: Deutsche Markàeco. Consolidation     - Denied by Stalinàtension  - Unified 1949àWest Germany: Federal Republic of Germany   - East Germany: German Democratic Republic (GDR) formalized by Stalin as retaliation   - Nürnberg Trialsà Punished war criminals  - **Free elections in all countries, after war **  - **Eastern sphere of Europe under Soviet influence (USSR)**  - **All Eastern countries made communist (USSR puppet gov.)à**buffer zones  - **"Iron curtain"-ChurchillàAllies relationship broke up**  - Allowed control of foreign policies at the edges of Eastern sphere   - Stalin wanted to move USSR border west  - **Potsdam Conference July-August 1945**  - Stalin, Trueman, Attlee (New UK PM)   - Roosevelt dies in April   - Harry S. Trueman: new US president   - Authorized Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings   - Anti-communist; suspicious of Stalin   - Fear of **"Domino effect":** Thought Stalin wants to take over Europe (communism spreads more to west)à "Trueman doctrine"à"Marshall plan"  - **Trueman Doctrine 1947**à**Containment** policy to curb Soviet influence  - \$400 mil. Financial aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communism  - No direct military force, financial aid + free market 4 e.g., Greece & Turkey  - **Marshall Plan 1947-52**à \$17 billion economic aid to rebuild Europe  - Fostered capitalism and countered Soviet influence  - Political move: Not given to east   - US Reveals Testing of A-BombàStalin had spies that already knew  - Disagreements over DE + reparations   - **First Proxy wars**àUK gradually ceded leadership to US (shift in global power)    - Context: Post-WW2 reconstruction of resources + eco.   - 2^nd^ Context: Communism seemed appealingàeco. Equality   - Greek civil war 1946-49: British and US intervention   - Context: liberated from Nazi occupation in 1944àCommunist-backed EAM/ELAS resistance vs monarchy; supported by Western Allies   - 2^nd^ Context: Fear of Domino Effect + Containment àBR + US wanted to stabilize Greece  - 1\. BR aided from 1944-17 against communistsàcouldn't afford at endàUS leadership through Trueman Doctrine  - 2\. Communist forces defeated in 1949àGreece aligned with Westà1952 join NATO  - Turkeyàgeostrategic importance (buffer state against USSR)   - Context: BR maintained Turkey neutrality during WW2àwestern alignment   - 1\. USSR wanted control of Turkey StraitàUS sent battleship for defence   - Modernization: BR + US aided Military + economy through Marshall Planàdefensive preparation 4 Cold War   - 2\. 1952 joined NATOàcements role against USSR   - Iranàvital supplier of oil to BR through Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) + strategic position   - Context: BR + USSR invaded Iran during WW2 to secure oil fields + supply routes   - 2^nd^ Context: BR supported pro-Western Monarch Shah to prevent USSR influence   - 1953 coup: BR + US orchestrated coup against PM Mossadegh after nationalizing AIOCàrestored Shah's poweràensured Western control over oil and alignment with anti-communist policies until 1979 Islamic Revl. (anti-Western theocracy)   - **Berlin Blockade 1948-49**àStalin cuts west Berlin off; US/UK airlifted supplies  - Objectiveàforce western Allies out + consolidate control over whole city, prevent creation of West DE   - Timeline:   1. 25th march: Stalin restricts western military and passenger traffic to east Berlin   2. 21st June: east Berlin halts shipment of DE mark and sends back   3. 24th June: severed land and water connections between east- and west Berlin   4. 25th June: east stops provisions to west Berlin   - Berlin Airlift: US and BR send airlifts to west Berlin; power show-off + protect essential capitalà277,804 flights + 2.3 mil. Tons   5. May 12^th^, 1949: Blockade ended due to embargoes on strategic eastern exportsàfear of political upheaval   - Validation 4 containmentàThe eastern Bloc rise in Communism   - (all countries will be part of the Warsaw Pact)   - 1947 Poland: communists in gov. Coalition + exiled non-communists   - 1947 Hungary: Communist were largest single party: imprisoned opposition & attacked church leaders   - Czechoslovakia: left-wing coalition wins election in '45; abolished monarchy   - Romania: communist PM left-wing coalition in '45: communist leaders execute opposition  - Albania: Communists win election by far   - **Cominform** '47: coordinate activities of communist parties; Stalin has more control  - Party of Yugoslavia: Tito expelled '48   - **Comecon** '49: **response to Marshall plan** by eastern bloc   - Strengthens economic ties (trade) in eastern Europe   - East Germany joins in 1950  - NATO Formation 1949: "**N**orth **A**tlantic **T**reaty **O**rganization"; Military alliance  - Intent to enforce Containmentàcounter USSR  - Currently 32 members; mix of west and eastern countries   - Article 5: any attack against one or more members, will be seen as a collective attack on all members   **1950's: Eastern Bloc developments**  - **Important ideology**àMcCarthyism: US senator McCarthy spread anti-communist Hysteria after **Red Scare** (communist influence in Korea and China)à**"communism" associated with anything bad **  - ConsequencesàFearmongering, curtailing of free speech, McCarthy's accusations w/o proof led to his censure in 1954   - Korean war 1950-53: North is communist (China/USSR) backed & South is American backed    - Context: 1910-1945 Korea before WW2 under Japanese control  - **38th parallel** divides Korea into south and North   - 1\. June 25^th^ 1950 Surprise invasion by Kim II Sung (north) with USSR support àtook Seoul   - 2\. Emergency UN force (16 countries)àpushed North Korean out of Seoul   - 3\. China started to get involved pushed them right back to parallelàNukes were considered but denied   - July 27^th^ 1953 **End in Stalemate**: maintain division along 38^th^   - China context: Mao Zedong (last emperor)àtotalitarian + anti-capitalist  - Chinese civil war 1927-1950: Republic of China vs Peoples Liberation Army (communist): Mao Zedong    - Zedongà5-year eco. PlanàGreat Famine (30-50 mil. Dead) + Collectivization (stopped foreign trade + redistributed land)   - 1949-56 Sino-Soviet Relations History examples   - '49: Mao allies himself with USSRàsigned mutual agreement; international front   - Stalin dealt with Europe and Mao with anti-colonial agents in South Asia   - **'50: Sino Soviet Treaty** China receives military support from USSR + USSR gains eco. Benefits from China   - '52: China supports North Korea   - '55: USSR offers nuclear powers to China   - 1952 US electionàEisenhower (anti-communist)   - Stalin's death 5^th^ March 1953: **died of stroke**; no doctor wanted to help (were afraid due to purges)   - Last days was paranoid   - "Puddle of indignity" for 3 days  - Purge of Doctors (most were Jewish): Feared "cosmopolitanism" (worldly)à feared Jews  - Possible Successors:   - Lavrentiy Beria (Stalin\'s first lieutenant): sexual predator   - Deputy Georgy Malenkov   - **Nikita Khrushchev;** revolutionist  - Makes peace with Tito (leader of Yugoslavia: dictator)   - Dissolves Cominformàkeeps Comecon + Warsaw pact   - 1955 Warsaw Pact (Soviet NATO)àensured that rebels would be dealt with by other members   - Causes: leaving soviet sphere or moderating policies  - Implemented after West Germany joined NATO   - Popular in Russia + US  - Went to US in '59; charmed the people   - Withdraws troops from Austria for neutrality   - **1956: Repudiation of Stalin's cult of personality in speech "The Cult of Personality and its Consequences"**  - Argues that "cult of personality" goes against Marx   - Lenin\'s testament about Stalin's Character   - Stalin violated party norms of communist party   - Stalin\'s violence through secret police (NKVD)   - Consequences: Sino-Soviet Split (formalized in 1961); Mao doesn't think he's fit for the job + Nikita gains favor against Malenkov   - Wants to peacefully coexist with the west   - Effect on eastern block   - Poland, Poznan workers strike '56; Gomulka (spokesperson): becomes president; Poland has to be loyal to Moscow, so Gomulka can stay president   - Budapest population uprising '56; Imre Nagy as president; demand 16 points (anti-Soviet + wanting independence)  - 1st November Nagy withdraws from Warsaw pact  - USSR military invasion of Hungary   - Nagy deported to Romania and killed   **1960's: Proxy wars & major moves**  - **Technological warfare:** US (advanced espionage) vs USSR (advanced space tech)   - USSR launched first satellite (1957), had more missiles, sent first astronaut into space   - Economic Division of Germany   - West Germany  - PMàKonrad Adenaueràwanted unified Germany   - grew under the Marshall Plan; 15 years of western investment   - NATO provided intermediate range missiles   - Berlin: 2 mil people + General Clay was a hero: directed all airlifts fueling WBerlins food supplies   - Showcase of successful capitalism model   - East Germany   - remained under Soviet exploitation  - Chancellor Walter Ulbrichtà Khrushchev's friend   - Eco. depression: soviet exploitation excused as "war reparations"  - Berlin: 1 mil people   - Communist/Stalinistà"Socialist Fatherland"   - Physical divisionàBarbed wires, watchtowers, minefields except for Berlin   - BerlinàUnrestricted free movement   - Work was in west  - Marienfelde: airport 4 refugees, they were flown to west DE   - mass-migration; 2.8 mil. Till 1961   - Berlin Wall  - 10th November 1958: Khrushchev says military occupation in Berlin shouldn't end   - Berlin should be free from westà West berlin should join USSR   - 2 weeks later: Ultimatum: get out of Berlin or let USSR sign treaty with GDR to take over all of Berlin  - Response by US: Eisenhower invites Khrushchev 1959  - Khrushchev is extremely successful and shows power through largest aircraft   - **Incident May-June '60: Gary Powers aircraft** (U2 spy plane) shot down while flying reconnaissance mission on USSR airspace: He got capturedàTightens US/USSR relations   - Wall erected to stop east Germans from fleeing the West 1961 "Grenze geschlossen"à**displays Soviet failure**   - JFK: **"Democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in.": CUNT**  - US diplomat denied access   - **October 1961: General Clay** sends armed soldiers to escort him   - 10 US tanks pulled up to **Checkpoint Charlie**   - 33 soviet tanks come   - 16h standoff   - "Only a mad man would start war over Berlin"-N.K.  - 20^th^ January 1961 JFK is elected President: young democrat   - **Cuban missile crisis 16th-28th October 1962 **  - Context: Cuban revolution ('53-'59); **The Monroe Doctrine;** US doesn't allow for Europe to intervene with Latin America, but they allow it for themselves   - Cuban History  - 1861-1865 American civil war    - Pro slavery people want to own Cuban island   - After civil war: question posed: "should they liberate or own it"  - Spanish-American war: America support Cubas liberation from Spain   - US semi owns it: Cuba is "free" but Us is allowed to intervene and control foreign policy + economy; Cuba feels suppressed   - After Cuban uprising: Cuba liberates itself and is friendly with US   - New authoritarian Cuban president Batista (1952)   - Nationalism vs communism   - US supports **Batista**; he supports US interests (like sugar)   - Soviets support revolutionary leader Fidel **Castro** (lawyer from wealthy family: critical of inequalities in Cuba)   - 26th of July movement (guerilla campaign: surprise and hide ("hit and run") attacks; hide in jungles)   - "Hit and run" attacks need popular support   - Lieutenant Che **Guevara** joins him   - Almost WW3 since US blocks Soviet missiles   - Victory over Batista '59: after years of guerilla warfare and growing support 4 Castro   - Castro declared Cuba as socialist state '61, aligned with USSR   - Symbol of resistance against American imperialism in Latin America   - **Nationalizes 1bn dollar investment from US **  - **Eisenhower blocks sugar exports '60**  - Khruschev buys all sugar; becomes friends with Castro  - **USSR puts nuclear missiles in Cuba**  - **US has them in Turkey **  - **MAD: Mutually assured destruction**  - Bay of Pigs 17th-20th April 1961 by JFK; CIA steered military operation to overturn Castro; no popular uprising **(huge fiasco)**  - October 1962: USSR nuclear weapons to be removed from Cuba   - Solution: **quarantine Cuba through US naval ships**: **embargo**  - 27th October 1962: **Vasili Arkhipov** prevented a Russian Submarine from launching nuclear Torpedo; **prevented WW3 **  - 2 letters from Khrushchev; ended up in US and USSR removing their missiles from Turkey and Cuba + no invasion of Cuba; Turkey missiles were a secret   - Consequences:  - Kennedy (viewed as heroic)àKilled 22/11/1963  - **Khrushchev deposed in 1964àBrezhnev as new leader **  - Impacts on Cold War  - Everybody is scared: **The Red Hotline**; direct communications link between US and USSR   - **Vietnam War** 1955-1975   - North Vietnam (USSR & China) vs South Vietnam (US & Allies)   - Vietnam divided at the **17th parallel**   - **Ho Chi Min**: anti colonialism; helped found the French communist party   - 1954 defeats French troops (colonialists)  - Mao's adviserà Supported by Mao and Soviets    - Founder of Viet Minh (liberation movement vs Japanese movement)   - North Vietnam   - **President Diem** (American puppet): catholic  - South Vietnam  - Anti-communist   - Crackdown on Buddhist community (90% of the pop. is Buddhist)   - June 1963: Buddhist sets himself on fire; famous picture   - 1963 murdered; Kennedy thought he would js be deposed   - Tonkin Gulf Incident (August 1964); **alleged** attacks on US destroyers by North Vietnamese  - President Johnson declares war  - **Elephant and the Grasshopper**:   - **Operation rolling thunder**: extensive bombing targeting North   - Search and destroy missions: Ground troops employed in Viet Cong   - Resistance: guerilla warfare (jungle: Viet Cong)   - Key Battles: **la Drang Valley '65**: 1st major engagement between the 2   - Turning point: **Tet Offensive January '68**: **coordinated attack by North Vietnamese on 5 major cities in the south **  - Outcome: US won tactically: loss in confidence of US leadership   - Impact on perception: gap between official reports and reality of war's progress: anti-war sentiment **(hippie movement)**   - **Vietnamization:** policy introduced by Nixon to gradually reduce US troops and train south Vietnamese   - Limited success in empowering southern forces; struggled w/o US support  - **Paris Peace Accords '73**: ceasefire agreement and withdrawal of US forces   - **Fall of Saigon '75: Unification of Vietnam under communist control **  - Why the US lost...  - They never really wanted the win   - Question of economic benefits   - No internal US support: real time media showed US brutality (**Televised war)**  - **Counterculture: "make Love not War" **  - Major demonstration: March on Washington '67   - Led to Vietnamization and withdrawal   - Vietnamese determination   - Environmental challenges   - Impact on cold waràUS bettered relations with China; Détente, reassessment of containment, SALT 1 and 2  - **The Prague Spring **  - Prague 1968: eco crises, food shortage   - '62-'63: GDP falls   - '66 Novotny (then president of Czechoslovakia): decentralizes economy: more power to local managers  - Market socialism: compromise between socialist planning and free enterprise; economy driven by mechanism supply and demand  - 1968: Dubcek: 2000-word manifesto (several intellectuals)   - No censorship, Multiple parties, Free elections   - **Fear of "reverse domino effect"**: Fear of Czechoslovakia going more liberal making others more liberal; Gomulka and Ulbricht repress student demonstrations  - **The Brezhnev Doctrine:** called for intervention in any Eastern Bloc nation "compromising soviet rule", by the whole Warsaw Pact countries  - Seizes airport of Prague   - Brezhnevàmore Warsaw pact engagement, one-party system, more censorship   **1970's: Détente ("relaxation) era**   - Drivers: Vietnam war, Sino-soviet split, Cuban missile crisis, the red hotline, checkpoint Charlie, economic drain due to military spending   - 1968 Nuclear nonproliferation treaty enters force in 1970   - Nonproliferation: Control spread of nuclear weapons   - Nuclear disarmament, Peaceful use of nuclear energy  - Signed by US, USSR, UK and later 191 countries   - Anti-Ballistic missile treaties  - SALT 1: Helsinki 1972: limited countries to only 2 sites for ballistic missiles   - Outcomes: non-confrontational relations between US and USSR  - 3 main principles: world peace, no alternative to peaceful coexistence, restraint in mutual relations  - SALT 2: Vienna '79: US president Carter (dem.) vs Brezhnev  - **Numerical equality in nuclear warhead**s + cap ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) and SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missiles)   - USSR invades Afghanistan (complicates things)   - (Ballistic missile: high arching trajectory)  - Can be stopped by anti-ballistic missile   - Ostpolitik: autonomous development   - **Willy Brandt** new west-German PM: wanted to mend east and west-German relations  - Stopped Hallstein Doctrine: Hallstein (Adenauers aid) implemented that FRG authorities couldn't communicate with anyone who acknowledged GDR  - Didn't care about permission from US   - went to east Germany and Moscow   - Acknowledges borders of USSR and Poland   - Basic Treaty: East Berlin 21/12/1972   - Both Germanies joined UN + established normal trade   - Reunification is a long-term goal   - Helsinki Accords 1975: recognized European sovereign borders + promoted cooperation, human rightsàinfluence cold war dissident movement   - '**79-'89 Soviet Afghan War **  - Afghanistan  - rugged landscape with mountains, between central and south Asia, Diverse ethnic groups   - Tribal (based on **kinship**) and societal structures **against centralized gov.**   - Context: 20th century: King **Amanullah** wants to modernize country   - '65 Peoples democratic party of Afghanistan founded (PDPA): Marxist Leninist orientation (didn't workàindustrialization)   - Grew in popularity against king   - '73 Daud's coup: cousin who seized power from King and ended monarchy   - **'78 The Saur revl.**: widespread rebellions by conservative and rural groups (**Mujahideen**), for radical reforms, e.g. wanted nationalization of eco.  - Daud overthrown, Planned eco., Top-down political system, No proletariat!   - '79 PDPA calls 4 USSR support   - Cold war triggered: Proxy war   - USSR support communist party: advanced technology    - US supports Mujahideen: guerilla tactics   - USSR had difficulty with terrain  - Tribes were united through invasion   - Outcome...  - USSR leaves due to cost; weakened it   - Instable Afghanistan   **1980's: "End"**  - **US economic crisis 70s à**Stagflation (high inflation, unemployment)   - **Ronald Reagan** elected   - "Raeganomics" economic liberalism: market shouldn't have any boundaries   - Tax cuts for the rich   - Deregulates laws in the market   - Reduces gov. Spending (social programs)   - Monetary control (maintains high interest rates)   - Supply-side economics: **"trickle-down economics"**   - Foreign policy   - Increase military spending   - Villainized communist USSR; financed anti-communist movements   - Wants more engagement from NATO   - Escalated arms race between USSR and US  - Rising tensions in USSR   - Many countries either steer away from communism or join it   - Growing awareness of western prosperity   - Chernobyl disaster '86   - Long-term causes...  - Outdated eco system   - Soviet morale decrease: Unhappiness with constant censorship   - Growing nationalism in soviet republics (e.g., Baltic states)   - Generational shift (Gorbachev)   - **March 1989: Mikhail Gorbachev elected**: more liberal and open to economic restructuring   - Wanted to decentralize economy: Limited market mechanisms   - Eastern bloc nations start slowly introducing multi-nominee elections (**perestroika** (economic restructuring) **glasnost** (political transparency; multiple candidates))  - Perestroika (failed due to poor management) + Glasnost (allowed for public unrest)  - allowed free speech, No censorship, Wanted better relationship with US   - Consequences   - Eastern European states inspired by soviet reform start rebelling: **"The Sinatra Doctrine"; soviet foreign policy **  - Fall of USSR  - **November 9th, 1989: Berlin wall falls **  - Rising movements from east Germans demanding to travel west   - **THE short-term cause:** Miscommunication by east German official that the borders were open   - Resulted in DE reunification in 1990     - 1989 elections: Boris Yeltsin won in the Republic of RussiaàRussian Federation sidelined Gorbachev   - 17th March 1991: **Referendum** on preserving the USSR   - 80% voted yes on keeping it   - 6 countries boycotted (3 Baltic states, Armenia, Georgia, Moldova)  - Failed coup 1991 by hardline communists kidnapping Gorbachev  - **Belavezha Accords December 1991:** dismantled USSR by Yeltsin with support of Belarus and Ukraine   - Established CIS (commonwealth of independent states)   - Soviet Union's authority over former states dissolved   - Official Dissolution: **December 25^th^, 1991 **  - Gorbachev resigned   - Flag replaced by Russian tricolor   - Alma-Ata Protocols   - CIS established as voluntary association   - Legal end of USSR   - Affirmed freedom of free states   **1990's: Aftermath**  - Important definitions:  - **Multilateralism**àDifferent countries work together to solve problem   - **Unilateralism**à Acting alone as one partyà US willingness to act alone when multilateral (multiple parties) action was constrained: e.g., Iraq War '03  - **Unipolarà**dominated by single state's military, economy, culture   - **Neoliberalism**àmarket-oriented policies; states shouldn't control markets e.g., eliminate price controls, lower trade barriers through e.g. **privatization**  - **Globalization**àBusinesses developing international influence   - **Neocolonialismà**control by state other a normally independent state (usually former colony) through indirect means  - Emerging issues   - Ethnic conflicts (former Yugoslavia, Rwanda)  - Non-State actors (terrorism + transnational organizations) reshape power dynamics  - Neoliberalism & Globalization  - Trends in global politics: **Unilateralism, Bilateralism and Multilateralism**   - **Unipolar US Interventionsà"The US as the World's Policeman"**  - **Humanitarian Interventions:**  - 1991 1st Gulf war: US backed by UN expels Iraqi out of Kuwait  - Seen as success of Multilateralism   - Challenges to US authorityà China, India and EU   - Growing resentment of US power  - 1993: **Failed** US intervention to stabilize famine-stricken and war-torn Somalia  - Bosnia (1995): NATO-led efforts to end ethnic cleansing through military strikes and peace agreements  - **Challenges to US authority:**  - Rise of regional powers like **China, India,** and the **EU.**  - ***Growing resentment of US dominance*** in Global South  - Military dominance:  - Presence of US bases worldwide viewed as **neo-colonial control**  - Use of drones and unilateral strikes in sovereign nations (e.g. Pakistan)  - **Cultural Hegemony**àPerception of US cultural dominance through media, technology, consumerismàundermining local identity  - **BRICS:** Emerging eco. (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) unite in opposition to perceived Western and US dominance  - Advocation for **multipolar** world order with equitable representation in global institutions  - Osama Bin Ladens letter   - Antisemitic sentimentàJewish people control the monetary capital and by that control the US   - **Accuses US of exploiting resources (oil), imposing western values, supporting the "vulture" companies over anything **    **European Union (1951-current)**    - Important definitions:   - **Euroscepticismà** Belief that the EU has too much influence, arguing for reducing EU powers or opposing membership (e.g., UK's BREXIT)  - **Sovereignty**àinter-state system supreme + independent power of government to self-govern make own laws, and control own affairs without external interference  - **Agency**à "to act": systems that create social movements + transformation of system   - Robert Schuman: "Architect" of the European Integration + Jean Monnet: "glue" of European Integration   - Robert Schuman: Lawyer: French-German culture   - Jean Monnet: Deputy secretary of league of nations: good International cooperation  - Konrad Adenauer: Built strong West Germany to fight against soviet east Germany   - **Context: Post WW2àneed 4 economic reconstructions + preventing conflict **  - 9th May 1950 Schuman Declaration: French foreign minister announces European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)àpolitical and economic integration   - **Treaty of Paris 1951**àCoal and Steel Community  - **1st member states:** West Germany, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Italy, Luxemburg  - **1st Supernationalist institutionà**limited extent for only coal and steel  - Treaties of Rome 25th March 1957→builds on success on ECSC  - 1st treatyà **European economic community** (EEC): **no internal tariffs, borders**, aims to improve agriculture  - enhanced economic integration and growthàoffering immense opportunities for citizens and businesses.   - requires robust mechanisms to **address disparities**, manage migration flows, and harmonize regulations   - 2^nd^ Treaty: **European atomic energy community** establishedàpeaceful use of nuclear energy + single market trade   - **1962 CAP: "Common Agricultural Policy"**àEnsures a **stable, affordable food supply**, supports/increase **farmers\' incomes**, and **promotes rural development**.  - Famine since post-ww2  - Single market for free movement of agriculture produce   - Debate about cost of CAP: high food prices   - All funding for agriculture comes from the EU itselfàEU budget 35%  - Taxes→100 euros a year   - Subsidizing agricultureàfarmers are dependent on nature, have rural areas depend on them, vulnerable to markets   - 3rd world countries famers can't compete with EU ones  - Merger Treaty 1965: European Commissionàproposes laws, members get picked by heads of state  - 3 institutions merged: ECSC, Euratom, EEC  - 3 institutions created: Council of Ministers (check proposal from commission), Parliament (represent people; grows in power), Court of Justice   - **Intergovernmentalism vs Supranationalism **  - Power of EU policy over national policyàEEC had more power  - **Supranationalismà**multiple countries delegate authority to higher institution àmakes decisions **binding** on all member statesàoverrides sovereignty  - E.g., European Union and the United Nations  - **Intergovernmentalismà**system of cooperation between sovereign states: decisions are made by agreement among participating governments, w/o transferring authority to higher supranational body  - include the United Nations and NATO  - **VETO power:** state can block any proposal by any party   - **De Gaulle vetoes UK application**à"Europe de Parties ": proposes EU as community of sovereign nation-states; didn't agree with supernationalist policies   - De Gaulleàvery pro FR stance + general in WW1: criticized UK + US relations + fear of Franco-German Relations weakening  - **1965 "Empty chair crisis" Gaulle boycotted EU institutions due to EEC policies **  - January 1966: Luxembourg compromise: veto power + unanimity vote to member states on EEC policies that threaten national interests   - CAP reform  - 1973: Oil crises   - "Glorious 30's" since 1940s end   - OPEC (middle eastern) vs oil companies (western)\--\>Opec raised prices  - Short term: showed EEC weakness + dependency on oil + energy-saving campaigns   - Long term: imports from other countries (USSR + Mexico), alternative energy (nuclear (France), geothermal (Ireland)  - **Concept of Deepening**à**increasing integration and cooperation among existing members** through reinforcement of policies to achieve similar levels of human rights  - Period between '73 and '13àConcept of Widening: Expansions  Background: A Quick Introduction to the EU  - 1985àSchengen Agreement: allows **passport-free travel** across participating European countriesà borderless zone for citizens/travelers (**Not all EU countries are part of Schengen, and some non-EU countries (e.g., Norway) participate)**  - **Ireland does not participate cuz of flights + Romania**  - Jacques Delores: President of European Commission: Single European Act 1986→implements free trade market: no borders, eco. + social cohesion, strengthen European monetary system (EMS)  - **"common market"àEU's Market based on 4 freedoms (Free movement of...)**  - **Goods, services, capital, people**  - Tensions between sovereignty and supranationalismàcentral in EU debates   - **Different political cultures; e.g., Thatcher vs Delors **  - Thatcher "Iron Lady": Neoliberalism   - Wanted free unregulated market but reduced contribution to EEC   - Ban regulations, trade unions and welfare   - Criticized CAP in 1984 for 80% spending   - Rejected supernationalist policy; critiqued Jack Delores (with Raegan)   - 7^th^ February Treaty of Maastricht 1992: **recognized the current state of EU**; **established common currency**; some countries did not accept it   - Qualified majority voting's, increased parliament\'s power   - Transformed EEC to EU   - Introduced economic and monetary union (EMU) as long-term goal; no EMSàstart of the euro  - Established pillars of cooperation in foreign policy, defense + justiceàexample of discipline   - Introduced EU citizenshipàParliament (approve laws) legislative powers strengthened   - **Principle of subsidiarity**à laws decided at EU levelà enforced in member states gov. individually   - ControversyàUK secured opt-out options from EMU + states faced issues ratifying   - Criticismà"Honeymoon" phase: 5 years of discipline before countries started abusing ità "casino liberalism/financial innovation": opportunity for countries like DE and FR to abuse power and avoid financial burden   - **Political union needed due to different political cultures **  - The Single Market: Borderless market by 1992  - **Copenhagen Criteria 1993**àguide to accession for eligible country   1. Rule of Law (everyone is equal before the law): free press/elections, **independent judiciary systems**   a. ChallengesàPoland and Hungary democratic backslide   2. Human rights requirementsàChallenges: discrimination against Roma communities in Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia   3. Functioning market economyàintegrated into single market, country should be market basedàchallenges: economic disparities between east and west + Greece struggle with fiscal discipline   4. Ability to adopt EU laws and obligations; European commission monitors through infringement proceduresàChallenges: Poland; conflict with national sovereignty   - Challenges of expansionàintegration of diverse economies and political cultures   - Challenges: Euroscepticism + Rising nationalism/populism + Migration + Economic Stagnation (not flourishing)    - Biggest challengeàforeign policy   - Balkan conflicts '90s  - High representative roleàcreated by Treaty of Amsterdam ('99) and Lisbon Treaty; to mend problems from Maastricht   - Lisbon treaty:   - replaced failed EU institutions; enhanced democratic legitimacy, due to enlargement and helping the countries  - enhance parliamentary policy   - strengthened role of High representative for Foreign Affairs and security policy   - caused: citizens initiatives (allowing EU citizens to propose legislation) + increased centralization at expense of national sovereignty   - Ukraine Crisis   - Eligible country: Turkey  - won't join due to...  - Would have more political powers (they\'re populist) + majority influence in Parliament due to population   - Clash with Greece and Cyprus   - Armenian genocide   - HR issues   **Transitions (Europe from dictatorship**à**Democracy)**  - Types of political regime:  - **Authoritarian regime**àrestrict liberty of citizens + use propaganda to manipulate public opinion; **not democratic**  - **Democracy**àdirect participation of all citizens in political system   - "demos": people + "kratos": will  - Representative democraciesàchoose professional politicians to do governing   - **Consolidated Democracyàinstitutions that represent everyone; acknowledges conflicts**  - 4 characteristics: free/fair elections, accountable/removable elected officials, rule of law to all citizens, equality (Health, education, welfare)  - Methodsàpolice "monopoly of violence" + propaganda   - Transitologyàanalyze transition from dictatorship to democracy   - **Factors of transitions**  - Internal factors: overextended military engagement in colonial wars, widespread discontentàPESC approach; Political, Economic, Social and cultural development  - External factors: decolonization, international pressure for democracy (EU)   - Agency   - Greece Case study   - BackgroundàThe Greek Junta "The Regime of the Colonels" (Military dictatorship '67-'74àanti-democratic   - Fall of Junta:   - Internal factorsàeco. Instability, severe political repression, student uprising in '73 (symbol of resistance)   - AgencyàColonel Georgios Papadopoulos overthrown by brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis   - External factorsàEuropean pressure (isolation), US initially supported but switched policy   - '81 Greece becomes a member **(enlargement)**  - Portugal Case study-Estado Novo   - Minister of Finance Salazar recovers eco. àmild fascism  - The Carnation Revolution ("bloodless")  - Internal Factorsàoverextended military engagements in colonial Africa, discontent in population due to economic hardships + political oppression   - AgencyàGeneral Antonio de Spinola opposed continuation of colonial warsà**military coup**   - External factorsàdecolonization and internal pressure from democratic gov., return of political exiles  - '86 joined the EU   - Case study: Francoist Spain  - Context: Spanish civil war '36-'39à'36Military coup from Franco against leftist gov. (was making progress); received support from Mussolini and Hitler   - '39 Franco establishes military dictatorshipàcentralized power, anti-communism, nationalism, catholic church   - Autarky: eco. Self-sufficiencyàeco. Isolation   - No one wanted to communicate with Spain after WW2  - '59 Plan de Estabilizaciónàeco. + investment Growth   - Francos death '75   - Internal factorsàauthoritarian regime left power vaccum filled by King Juan Carlos I (facilitated shift to democracy)  - Eco. Pressure + desire for modernization and democracy   - Agencyà King Juan Carlos I + Adolfo Suárez (PM)  - Suárezàpolitical reforms (free elections, legalization of parties)  - '77 General elections   - '78 Spanish constitutionàparliamentary monarchy with decentralized structure   - External Factors  - '86 joined EU   - Spanish transition   - Pacto del Olvidoàavoided addressing Franco-era atrocities   - Established framework for Spain's political pluralism, decentralization, integration into European institutions   - Poland case study: "Solidarity"   - Poland Context: Extreme catholic presence (opposed atheist soviet ideology)  - Late 1970's: Eco. Crisis + establishment of independent trade unions  - Summer 1980's strikesàCreation of "Solidarity" trade union; led by **Lech Walesa**àput forward 21 demands (e.g., end to censorship + higher wages + broadcasting catholic news services)   - 30^th^ August 1980 PO gov. accepted all demands: Soviet fragility (**no military employment, due to Afghan War**) + playing 4 time (hoped union would collapse on itself)  - Membership of "Solidarity" grew exponentially + had support of Catholic church   - February 1981àMilitary **General Jaruzelski** took overàintroduced martial law (control by military): censorship, curfew, imprisoned 10000 "Solidarity" members + Walesa   - His. Context: Collapse of USSR + US embargoes on Poland after Détente   - June 1989àResult of "Sinatra Doctrine": Solidarity majority won in open elections  - 1990àLech Walesa is President