History Prébac Past Paper - 22nd January 2025 PDF

[History Prébac 22^nd^ January 2025] Prébac structure 1. Part 1:EU - Source A: explain the meaning - Source B and C: compare & contrast - Source B and C: evaluate - Source D: synthesis 2. Part 2A2 definitions 3. Part 2B2 essays on 2 different questions on cold war...

[History Prébac 22^nd^ January 2025] Prébac structure 1. Part 1:EU - Source A: explain the meaning - Source B and C: compare & contrast - Source B and C: evaluate - Source D: synthesis 2. Part 2A2 definitions 3. Part 2B2 essays on 2 different questions on cold war - 1xdiscriptive essay + 1xstructured response **Cold War (12^th^ March 1947-26^th^ December 1991)**Period of geopolitical tension for ideological dominance in the **US (capitalism) vs USSR (communism)** - IdeologySystem of ideals which form through political and eco. theory - Narratives often form (always present in politics), that motivate movement and keep it going - Capitalismeconomic system where private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that serves best interests of society**Motive to make a profit** - Communismall property + wealth owned & shared by communityno individual ownership - No direct fighting - US supported through western bloc & USSR supported through eastern bloc - Proxy wars2 superpowers supporting opposite agents in regional wars - Notable events: Nuclear arms race - Struggle for dominance expressed through psychological warfare, propaganda, espionage, embargoes (economic sanctions), technological competitions **1940's: Forming ideologies** Important definitions/historical context: - **(Hannah Arendt) Totalitarianism**Form of gov. that asserts total control over its citizens, by suppressing traditional institutions and individualism - Features: Supported by mass (through manipulation), Cult of personality, fear/terror, secret police, propaganda, violence, radical ideology, central control, organization - **Propaganda**Communication that influences and furthers agenda; selective with facts to get desired emo. Response - **Collectivization**communist eco. System: Organization of all production and industry into gov. ownershipoften disrupts agricultural production and workers rightsfamine - Utilized by Stalin(totalitarian): 5 year plan (after 1924)industrialized eco. - **Doctrine**set of beliefs that cannot be questioned** ** - **Yalta conference 4th-11th February 1945** - Attendants: Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill  - French leader general Charles de Gaulle not invited (same 4 Potsdam)resentment - Germany - Stalin wants it to become rural country +advocated 4 heavy reparations to rebuild USSR - Kept east DE under strict control: buffer zone against the west - Plans 4 Berlinabsorb into eastern bloc - Slowly undermine western positions - Formation of socialist state: Community party of DE + SPD = Socialist unity party (SED) - Anti-fascist, „democratic "regimeunder Soviet control - Factories, equipment, managers, technicians and skilled personnel moved to USSR  - **Stalin hoped 4 a unified denazified (hunted down past officials) DE aligned with Soviet interests**disrupted by Marshall Plan - Divided in 4 zones - Churchill lobbied FR to be one of the sectors   - 3 western zones (US, FR, BR)more developed - 18^th^ June 1948: Deutsche Markeco. Consolidation - Denied by Stalintension - Unified 1949West Germany: Federal Republic of Germany - East Germany: German Democratic Republic formalized by Stalin as retaliation - Nürnberg Trials Punished war criminals - Free elections in all countries, after war  - Eastern sphere of Europe under Soviet influence (USSR) - All Eastern countries made communist (USSR puppet gov.)buffer zones - **"Iron curtain"-ChurchillAllies relationship broke up** - Allowed control of foreign policies at the edges of Eastern sphere  - Stalin wanted to move USSR border west - **Potsdam Conference July-August 1945** - Stalin, Trueman, Attlee (New UK PM)  - Roosevelt dies in April  - Harry S. Trueman: new US president - Authorized Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings  - Anti-communist; suspicious of Stalin  - Fear of **"Domino effect":** Thought Stalin wants to take over Europe (communism spreads more to west) "Trueman doctrine""Marshall plan" - **Trueman Doctrine 1947Containment** policy to curb Soviet influence - \$400 mil. Financial aid to Greece and Turkey to resist communism - No direct military force, financial aid + free market 4 e.g., Greece & Turkey - **Marshall Plan 1947-52** \$17 billion economic aid to rebuild Europe - Fostered capitalism and countered Soviet influence - Expansion of US capitalism - Political move: Not given to east - US Reveals Testing of A-BombStalin had spies that already knew - Disagreements over DE + reparations - First Proxy warsUK gradually ceded leadership to US (shift in global power) - Context: Post-WW2 reconstruction of resources + eco. - 2^nd^ Context: Communism seemed appealingeco. Equality - Greek civil war 1946-49: British and US intervention - Context: liberated from Nazi occupation in 1944Communist-backed EAM/ELAS resistance vs monarchy; supported by Western Allies - 2^nd^ Context: Fear of Domino Effect + Containment BR + US wanted to stabilize Greece - 1\. BR aided from 1944-17 against communistscouldn't afford at endUS leadership through Trueman Doctrine - 2\. Communist forces defeated in 1949Greece aligned with West1952 join NATO - Turkeygeostrategic importance (buffer state against USSR) - Context: BR maintained Turkey neutrality during WW2western alignment - 1\. USSR wanted control of Turkey StraitUS sent battleship for defence - Modernization: BR + US aided Military + economy through Marshall Plandefensive preparation 4 Cold War - 2\. 1952 joined NATOcements role against USSR - Iranvital supplier of oil to BR through Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) + strategic position - Context: BR + USSR invaded Iran during WW2 to secure oil fields + supply routes - 2^nd^ Context: BR supported pro-Western Monarch Shah to prevent USSR influence - 1953 coup: BR + US orchestrated coup against PM Mossadegh after nationalizing AIOCrestored Shah's powerensured Western control over oil and alignment with anti-communist policies until 1979 Islamic Revl. (anti-Western theocracy) - **Berlin Blockade 1948-49**Stalin cuts west Berlin off; US/UK airlifted supplies - Objectiveforce western Allies out + consolidate control over whole city, prevent creation of West DE - Timeline: 1. 25th march: Stalin restricts western military and passenger traffic to east Berlin  2. 21st June: east Berlin halts shipment of DE mark and sends back  3. 24th June: severed land and water connections between east- and west Berlin  4. 25th June: east stops provisions to west Berlin  - Berlin Airlift: US and BR send airlifts to west Berlin; power show-off + protect essential capital277,804 flights + 2.3 mil. Tons 5. May 12^th^, 1949: Blockade ended due to embargoes on strategic eastern exportsfear of political upheaval - Symbolized Cold War tensions - Validation 4 containmentThe eastern Bloc rise in Communism - (all countries will be part of the Warsaw Pact) - 1947 Poland: communists in gov. Coalition + exiled non-communists - 1947 Hungary: Communist were largest single party: imprisoned opposition & attacked church leaders  - Czechoslovakia: left-wing coalition wins election in '45; abolished monarchy  - Romania: communist PM left-wing coalition in '45: communist leaders execute opposition - Albania: Communists win election by far  - **Cominform** '47: coordinate activities of communist parties  - Party of Yugoslavia: Tito expelled '48  - **Comecon** '49: response to Marshall plan by eastern bloc  - Strengthens economic ties (trade) in eastern Europe  - East Germany joins in 1950 - NATO Formation 1949: "**N**orth **A**tlantic **T**reaty **O**rganization"; Military alliance - Intent to enforce Containmentcounter USSR - Currently 32 members; mix of west and eastern countries - Article 5: any attack against one or more members, will be seen as a collective attack on all members  **1950's: Eastern Bloc developments** - **Important ideology**McCarthyism: US senator McCarthy spread anti-communist Hysteria after Red Scare (communist influence in Korea and China)**"communism" associated with anything bad** - ConsequencesFearmongering, curtailing of free speech, McCarthy's accusations w/o proof led to his censure in 1954 - Korean war 1950-53: North is communist (China/USSR) backed & South is American backed   - **38th parallel** divides Korea into south and North - 1\. June 25^th^ 1950 Surprise invasion by Kim II Sung (north) with USSR support took Seoul - 2\. Emergency UN force (16 countries)pushed North Korean out of Seoul - 3\. China started to get involved pushed them right back to parallelNukes were considered but denied - July 27^th^ 1953 End in Stalemate: maintain division along 38^th^ - China context: Mao Zedong (last emperor)totalitarian + anti-capitalist - Chinese civil war 1927-1950: Republic of China vs Peoples Libeeration Army (communist): Mao Zedong - Zedong5-year eco. PlanGreat Famine (30-50 mil. Dead) + Collectivization (stopped foreign trade + redistributed land) - 1949-56 Sino-Soviet Relations History examples - '49: Mao allies himself with USSR; international front  - '50: China receives military support from USSR  - '52: China supports North Korea  - '55: USSR offers nuclear powers to China  - 1952 US electionEisenhower (anti-communist) - Stalin's death 5^th^ March 1953: **died of stroke**; no doctor wanted to help (were afraid due to purges)  - Last days was paranoid - "Puddle of indignity" for 3 days - Purge of Doctors (most were Jewish): Feared "cosmopolitanism" (worldly) feared Jews - Possible Successors:  - Lavrentiy Beria (Stalin\'s first lieutenant): sexual predator  - Deputy Georgy Malenkov  - **Nikita Khrushchev ** - Malenkov vs Nikita - Nikita (revolutionist) - Makes peace with Tito (leader of Yugoslavia: dictator)  - Dissolves Cominformkeeps Comecon + Warsaw pact - 1955 Warsaw Pact (Soviet NATO)ensured that rebels would be dealt with by other members - Causes: leaving soviet sphere or moderating policies - Implemented after West Germany joined NATO - Popular in Russia + US - Went to US in '59; charmed the people  - Withdraws troops from Austria for neutrality  - Repudiation of Stalin's cult of personality in **speech "The Cult of Personality and its Consequences"** - Argues that "cult of personality" goes against Marx  - Lenin\'s testament about Stalin's Character  - Stalin violated party norms of communist party  - Stalin\'s violence through secret police (NKVD)  - Consequences: Sino-Soviet Split (formalized in 1961) + Nikita gains favor against Malenkov - Wants to peacefully coexist with the west  - Effect on eastern block  - Poland, Poznan workers strike '56; Gomulka (spokesperson): becomes president; Poland has to be loyal to Moscow, so Gomulka can stay president  - Budapest population uprising '56; Imre Nagy as president; demand 16 points (anti-Soviet + wanting independence) - 1st November Nagy withdraws from Warsaw pact - USSR military invasion of Hungary  - Nagy deported to Romania and killed  **1960's: Proxy wars & major moves** - **Technological warfare:** US (advanced espionage) vs USSR (advanced space tech) - USSR launched first satellite (1957), had more missiles, sent first astronaut into space - Economic Division of Germany - West Germany - PM of WDEKonrad Adenauerwanted unified Germany - grew under the Marshall Plan - 15 years of western investment transformed environment - NATO provided intermediate range missiles  - Berlin: 2 mil people + General Clay was a hero: directed all airlifts fueling WBerlins food supplies - East Germany - remained under Soviet exploitation - Dictator Walter Ulbricht Khrushchev's friend  - Eco. depression: soviet exploitation excused as "war reparations" - Berlin: 1 mil people  - Communist/Stalinist"Socialist Fatherland"  - Physical divisionBarbed wires, watchtowers, minefields except for Berlin - BerlinUnrestricted free movement  - Work was in west - Marien Feld: airport 4 refugees, they were flown to west DE  - mass-migration; 2.8 mil. Till 1961  - Berlin Wall - 10th November 1958: Khrushchev says military occupation in Berlin shouldn't end  - Berlin should be free from west West berlin should join USSR  - 2 weeks later: Ultimatum  - Response by US: Eisenhower invites Khrushchev 1959 - Khrushchev is extremely successful and shows power through largest aircraft  - Incident May-June '60: Gary Powers aircraft (U2 spy plane) was shot down while flying reconnaissance mission on USSR airspace: He got capturedTightens US/USSR relations  - Wall erected to stop east Germans from fleeing the West 1961 "Grenze geschlossen"**displays Soviet failure** - JFK: **"Democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in."** - US diplomat denied access  - **October 1961: General Clay** sends armed soldiers to escort him  - 10 US tanks pulled up to **Checkpoint Charlie**  - 33 soviet tanks come  - 16h standoff  - "Only a mad man would start war over Berlin"-N.K. - 20^th^ January 1961 JFK is elected President: young democrat - **Cuban missile crisis 16th-28th October 1962** - Context: Cuban revolution ('53-'59); **The Monroe Doctrine;** US doesn't allow for Europe to intervene with Latin America, but they allow it for themselves  - Cuban History - 1861-1865 American civil war   - Pro slavery people want to own Cuban island  - After civil war: question posed: "should they liberate or own it" - Spanish-American war: America support Cubas liberation from Spain  - US semi owns it: Cuba is "free" but Us is allowed to intervene and control foreign policy + economy; Cuba feels suppressed  - After Cuban uprising: Cuba liberates itself and is friendly with US  - New authoritarian Cuban president Batista (early 50s)  - Nationalism vs communism  - US supports Batista; he supports US interests (like sugar)  - Soviets support revolutionary leader Castro (lawyer from wealthy family: critical of inequalities in Cuba)  - 26th of July movement (guerilla campaign: surprise and hide ("hit and run") attacks; hide in jungles)  - "Hit and run" attacks need popular support  - Che Guevara joins him  - Almost WW3 since US blocks Soviet missiles  - Victory over Batista '59: after years of guerilla warfare and growing support 4 Castro  - Castro declared Cuba as socialist state '61, aligned with USSR  - Symbol of resistance against American imperialism in Latin America  - Nationalizes 1bn dollar investment from US  - Eisenhower blocks sugar exports '60 - Khruschev buys all sugar; becomes friends with Castro - USSR puts nuclear missiles in Cuba - US has them in Turkey  - MAD: Mutually assured destruction - His. question: was he nationalist or communist? - Bay of Pigs 17th-20th April 1961 by JFK; CIA steered military operation to overturn Castro; no popular uprising **(huge fiasco)** - October 1962: USSR nuclear weapons to be removed from Cuba  - Solution: quarantine Cuba through US naval ships  - 27th October 1962: **Vasili Arkhipov** prevented a Russian Submarine from launching nuclear Torpedo; **prevented WW3 ** - 2 letters from Khrushchev; ended up in US and USSR removing their missiles from Turkey and Cuba  - Consequences: - Kennedy (viewed as heroic)Killed 22/11/1963 - Khrushchev deposed in 1964Brezhnev as new leader - Impacts on Cold War - Everybody is scared: **The Red Hotline**; direct communications link between US and USSR  - **Vietnam War** 1955-1975  - North Vietnam (USSR & China) vs South Vietnam (US & Allies)  - Vietnam divided at the **17th parallel**  - **Ho Chi Min**: anti colonialism; helped found the French communist party  - 1954 defeats French troops (colonialists) - Mao's adviser Supported by Mao and Soviets   - Founder of Viet Minh (liberation movement vs Japanese movement)  - North Vietnam  - **President Diem** (American puppet)  - South Vietnam - Anti-communist  - Crackdown on Buddhist community (90% of the pop. is Buddhist)  - June 1963: Buddhist sets himself on fire; famous picture  - 1963 murdered  - Tonkin Gulf Incident (August 1964); attacks on US destroyers by North Vietnamese - President Johnson declares war  - **Elephant and the Grasshopper**:  - Operation rolling thunder: extensive bombing targeting North  - Search and destroy missions: Ground troops employed in Viet Cong  - Resistance: guerilla warfare (jungle: Viet Cong)  - Key Battles: la Drang Valley '65: 1st major engagement between the 2  - Turning point: Tet Offensive January '68: coordinated attack by North Vietnamese on 5 major cities in the south  - Outcome: US won tactically: loss in confidence of US leadership  - Impact on perception: gap between official reports and reality of war's progress: anti-war sentiment **(hippie movement)**  - **Vietnamization:** policy introduced by Nixon to gradually reduce US troops and train south Vietnamese  - Limited success in empowering southern forces; struggled w/o US support - Paris Peace Accords '73: ceasefire agreement and withdrawal of US forces  - **Fall of Saigon '75: Unification of Vietnam under communist control ** - Why the US lost... - They never really wanted the win  - Question of economic benefits  - No internal US support: real time media showed US brutality (**Televised war)** - **Counterculture: "make Love not War"** - Major demonstration: March on Washington '67  - Led to Vietnamization and withdrawal  - Vietnamese determination  - Environmental challenges  - Impact on cold warUS bettered relations with China  - **The Prague Spring** - Prague 1968: eco crises, food shortage  - '62-'63: GDP falls  - '66 Novotny (then president of Czechoslovakia): decentralizes economy: more power to local managers; not planned - Market socialism: compromise between socialist planning and free enterprise; economy driven by mechanism supply and demand - 1968: Dubcek: 2000-word manifesto (several intellectuals)  - No censorship  - Multiple parties  - Free elections  - **Fear of "reverse domino effect"**: Fear of Czechoslovakia going more liberal making others more liberal; Gomulka and Ulbricht repress student demonstrations - **The Brezhnev Doctrine:** called for intervention in any Eastern Bloc nation "compromising soviet rule", by the whole Warsaw Pact countries - Seizes airport of Prague  **1970's: Détente ("relaxation) era** - Drivers: Vietnam war, Sino-soviet split, Cuban missile crisis, the red hotline, checkpoint Charlie, economic drain due to military spending - 1968 Nuclear nonproliferation treaty enters force in 1970  - Nonproliferation: Control spread of nuclear weapons  - Nuclear disarmament  - Peaceful use of nuclear energy - Signed by US, USSR, UK and later 191 countries  - 1972 Arms limitation treaty  - Anti-Ballistic missile treaty: '72  - SALT 1: limited countries to only 2 sites for ballistic missiles  - Outcomes: non-confrontational relations between US and USSR - 3 main principles: world peace, no alternative to peaceful coexistence, restraint in mutual relations - SALT 2: Vienna '79: US president Carter (dem.) vs Brezhnev - Numerical equality in nuclear warheads + cap ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) and SLBM (submarine-launched ballistic missiles)  - USSR invades Afghanistan (complicates things)  - (Ballistic missile: high arching trajectory) - Can be stopped by anti-ballistic missile  - Ostpolitik - **Willy Brandt** new west-German PM: wanted to mend east and west-German relations - went to east Germany and Moscow  - Acknowledges borders of USSR and Poland  - Basic Treaty: East Berlin 21/12/1972  - Both Germanies joined UN + established normal trade  - Reunification is a long-term goal  - Helsinki Accords 1975: recognized European sovereign borders + promoted cooperation - '**79-'89 Soviet Afghan War ** - Afghanistan - rugged landscape with mountains - Link between central and south Asia - Diverse ethnic groups  - Tribal (based on **kinship**) and societal structures against centralized gov.  - Context: 20th century: King Amanullah wants to modernize country  - '65 Peoples democratic party of Afghanistan founded (PDPA): Marxist Leninist orientation (didn't workindustrialization)  - Grew in popularity against king  - '73 Daud's coup: cousin who seized power from King and ended monarchy  - **'78 The Saur revl.**: widespread rebellions by conservative and rural groups (Mujahideen), for radical reforms, e.g. wanted nationalization of eco. - Daud overthrown  - Planned eco.  - Top-down political system - No proletariat!  - '79 PDPA calls 4 USSR support  - Cold war triggered: Proxy war  - USSR support communist party: advanced technology   - US supports Mujahideen: guerilla tactics  - USSR had difficulty with terrain - Tribes were united through invasion  - Outcome... - USSR leaves due to cost; weakened it  - Instable Afghanistan  - **US economic crisis 70s **Stagflation (high inflation, unemployment stagnant economic growth)  - **Ronald Reagan** elected  - "Raeganomics" economic liberalism: market shouldn't have any boundaries  - Tax cuts for the rich  - Deregulates laws in the market  - Reduces gov. Spending (social programs)  - Monetary control (maintains high interest rates)  - Supply-side economics: **"trickle-down economics"**  - Foreign policy  - Increase military spending  - Villainized communist USSR; financed anti-communist movements  - Wants more engagement from NATO  - Escalated arms race between USSR and US - Rising tensions in USSR - Many countries either steer away from communism or join it  - Growing awareness of western prosperity  - Chernobyl disaster '86  - Soviet morale decreases  - Bad eco. State  - Opposition movements  - Long-term causes... - Outdated eco system  - Unhappiness with constant censorship  - Growing nationalism in soviet republics (e.g., Baltic states)  - Generational shift (Gorbachev)  - **Gorbachev elected**: more liberal and open to economic restructuring  - Wanted to decentralize economy  - Limited market mechanisms  - Eastern bloc nations start slowly introducing multi-nominee elections (**perestroika** (economic restructuring) **glasnost** (political transparency)) - Started allowing for free speech  - No censorship  - Wanted better relationship with US - Consequences  - Eastern European states inspired by soviet reform start rebelling: **"The Sinatra Doctrine"** - Cracks of the soviet system  - Fall of USSR - **November 9th, 1989: Berlin wall falls ** - Rising movements from east Germans demanding to travel west  - **THE short-term cause:** Miscommunication by east German official that the borders were open  - Resulted in DE reunification in 1990    - 1989 elections: Boris Yeltsin won in the Republic of RussiaRussian Federation sidelined Gorbachev - 17th March 1991: **Referendum** on preserving the USSR  - 80% voted yes on keeping it  - Failed coup 1991 by hardline communists kidnapping Gorbachev: - **Belavezha Accords December 1991:** dismantled USSR by Yeltsin with support of Belarus and Ukraine - Established CIS (commonwealth of independent states)  - Soviet Union's authority over former states dissolved  - Official Dissolution: **December 25^th^, 1991** - Gorbachev resigned - Flag replaced by Russian tricolor - Alma-Ata Protocols  - CIS established as voluntary association  - Legal end of USSR  - Affirmed freedom of free states  - Questions to pose: - Would the USSR have collapsed w/o cold war?  - Yes, eventually due to internal factors (such as censorship, revolts)  - But not directly yes or no, these are only assumptions  - Was the USSR the continuation of Russian Imperialism in different guise?  - Entitlement from USSR  - "Clash of civilization": clash of principles e.g., religion  - China: Mao create a narrative to unify the Chinese people, that resulted in China being very nationalist  **1990's: Aftermath** - Important definitions: - **Multilateralism**Different countries work together to solve problem - **Unilateralism** Acting alone as one party US willingness to act alone when multilateral (multiple parties) action was constrained: e.g., Iraq War '03 - **Unipolar**dominated by single state's military, economy, culture - **Neoliberalism**market-oriented policies; states shouldn't control markets e.g., eliminate price controls, lower trade barriers through e.g. **privatization** - **Globalization**Businesses developing international influence - **Neocolonialism**control by state other a normally independent state (usually former colony) through indirect means - Emerging issues  - Ethnic conflicts (former Yugoslavia, Rwanda) - Non-State actors (terrorism + transnational organizations) reshape power dynamics - Neoliberalism & Globalization - Trends in global politics: **Unilateralism, Bilateralism and Multilateralism**  - **Unipolar US Interventions"The US as the World's Policeman"** - **Humanitarian Interventions:** - 1991 1st Gulf war: US backed by UN expels Iraqi out of Kuwait - Seen as success of Multilateralism  - Humanitarian interventions - '93: failed US intervention in war-torn Somalia - Challenges to US authority China, India and EU  - Growing resentment of US power - 1993: **Failed** US intervention to stabilize famine-stricken and war-torn Somalia - Bosnia (1995): NATO-led efforts to end ethnic cleansing through military strikes and peace agreements - **Challenges to US authority:** - Rise of regional powers like **China, India,** and the **EU.** - ***Growing resentment of US dominance*** in Global South - Military dominance: - Presence of US bases worldwide viewed as a form of **neo-colonial control** - Use of drones and unilateral strikes in sovereign nations (e.g. Pakistan) - **Cultural Hegemony**Perception of US cultural dominance through media, technology, consumerismundermining local identity - **BRICS:** Emerging eco. (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) unite in opposition to perceived Western and US dominance - Advocation for **multipolar** world order with equitable representation in global institutions - Osama Bin Ladens letter  - Antisemitic sentimentJewish people control the monetary capital and by that control the US  - Accuses US of exploiting resources (oil), imposing western values, supporting the "vulture" companies over anything  **European Union (1951-current)** - Important definitions: - **Euroscepticism** Belief that the EU has too much influence, arguing for reducing EU powers or opposing membership (e.g., UK's BREXIT) - **Sovereignty**inter-state system supreme + independent power of government to self-govern make own laws, and control own affairs without external interference - **Agency** "to act": systems that create social movements + transformation of system - Robert Schuman: "Architect" of the European Integration + Jean Monnet: "glue" of European Integration  - Robert Schuman: Lawyer: French-German culture - Jean Monnet: Deputy secretary of league of nations: good International cooperation - Konrad Adenauer: Built strong West Germany to fight against soviet east Germany - Context: Post WW2need 4 economic reconstructions + preventing conflict - 9th May 1950 Schuman Declaration: French foreign minister announces European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)political and economic integration - **Treaty of Paris 1951**Coal and Steel Community - **1st Supernationalist institution**limited extent for only coal and steel - Treaties of Rome 25th March 1957→builds on success on ECSC - 1st treaty **European economic community** (EEC): **no internal tariffs, borders**, aims to improve agriculture**"common market"** - **1st member states:** West Germany, Belgium, France, Netherlands, Italy, Luxemburg  - **EU's Market based on 4 freedoms (Free movement of...)** - **Goods, services, capital, people** - enhanced economic integration and growthoffering immense opportunities for citizens and businesses. - requires robust mechanisms to **address disparities**, manage migration flows, and harmonize regulations - 2^nd^ Treaty: **European atomic energy community** establishedpeaceful use of nuclear energy + single market trade - **1962 CAP: "Common Agricultural Policy"**Ensures a **stable, affordable food supply**, supports **farmers\' incomes**, and **promotes rural development**. - Debate about cost of CAP: high food prices - All funding for agriculture comes from the EU itselfEU budget 35% - Taxes→100 euros a year  - Subsidizing agriculturefarmers are dependent on nature, have rural areas depend on them, vulnerable to markets  - 3rd world countries famers can't compete with EU ones - Merger Treaty 1965: European Commission - 3 institutions: constitution, court of justice, parliament  - **Intergovernmentalism vs Supranationalism ** - Power of EU policy over national policyEEC had more power - **Supranationalism**multiple countries delegate authority to higher institution makes decisions **binding** on all member statesoverrides sovereignty - E.g., European Union and the United Nations - **Intergovernmentalism**system of cooperation between sovereign states: decisions are made by agreement among participating governments, w/o transferring authority to higher supranational body - include the United Nations and NATO - **VETO power:** state can block any proposal by any party  - De Gaulle vetoes UK application"Europe de Parties ": proposes EU as community of sovereign nation-states; didn't agree with supernationalist policies - De Gaullevery pro stance + general in WW1: criticized UK + US relations + fear of Franco-German Relations - 1965 "Empty chair crisis" Gaulle boycotted EU institutions due to EEC policies - January 1966: Luxembourg compromise: veto power + unanimity vote to member states on EEC policies that threaten national interests - CAP reform - 1973: Oil crises  - "Glorious 30's" since 1940s end - OPEC (middle eastern) vs oil companies (western)\--\>Opec raised prices - Short term: showed EEC weakness + dependency on oil + energy-saving campaigns - Long term: imports from other countries (USSR + Mexico), alternative energy (nuclear (France), geothermal (Ireland) - **Concept of Deepeningincreasing integration and cooperation among existing members** through reinforcement of policies to achieve similar levels of human rights - 1978 Economic and Monetary Unionestablished stable monetary system: eventually single currency - Period between '73 and '92Concept of Widening: Expansions - **Consolidated Democracyinstitutions that represent everyone; acknowledges conflicts** - Jacques Delores: President of European Commission: Single European Act 1986→implements free trade market: no borders, eco. + social cohesion, strengthen European monetary system (EMS) - Tensions between sovereignty and supranationalismcentral in EU debates - **Different political cultures; e.g., Thatcher vs Delors** - Thatcher "Iron Lady": Neoliberalism - Reduced contribution to EEC  - Ban regulations, trade unions and welfare  - Rejected supernationalist policy; critiqued Jack Delores (with Raegan) - 7^th^ February Treaty of Maastricht 1992: **recognized the current state of EU**; **established common currency**; some countries did not accept it  - Qualified majority voting's, increased parliament\'s power  - Transformed EEC to EU - Introduced economic and monetary union (EMU) as long-term goal; no EMSstart of the euro - Established pillars of cooperation in foreign policy, defense + justiceexample of discipline - Introduced EU citizenshipParliament (approve laws) legislative powers strengthened - Principle of subsidiarity laws decided at EU level enforced in member states gov. - ControversyUK secured opt-out options from EMU + states faced issues ratifying - Criticism"Honeymoon" phase: 5 years of discipline before countries started abusing it "casino liberalism/financial innovation": opportunity for countries like DE and FR to abuse power and avoid financial burden - **Political union needed due to different political cultures** - The Single Market: Borderless market by 1992 - **Copenhagen Criteria 1993**guide to accession for eligible country 1. Rule of Law (everyone is equal before the law): free press/elections, **independent judiciary systems** a. ChallengesPoland and Hungary democratic backslide 2. Human rights requirementsChallenges: discrimination against Roma communities in Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia 3. Functioning market economyintegrated into single market, country should be market basedchallenges: economic disparities between east and west + Greece struggle with fiscal discipline 4. Ability to adopt EU laws and obligations; European commission monitors through infringement proceduresChallenges: Poland; conflict with national sovereignty - Challenges of expansionintegration of diverse economies and political cultures - Challenges: Euroscepticism + Rising nationalism/populism + Migration + Economic Stagnation (not flourishing) - Biggest challengeforeign policy - Balkan conflicts '90s - High representative rolecreated by Treaty of Amsterdam ('99) and Lisbon - Ukraine Crisis - Eligible country: Turkey - won't join due to... - Would have more political powers (they\'re populist) + majority influence in Parliament due to population - Clash with Greece and Cyprus  - Armenian genocide  - HR issues **Transitions (Europe from dictatorshipDemocracy)** - Types of political regime: - **Authoritarian regime**restrict liberty of citizens + use propaganda to manipulate public opinion; **not democratic** - **Democracy**direct participation of all citizens in political system - "demos": people + "kratos": will - Representative democracieschoose professional politicians to do governing - 4 characteristics: free/fair elections, accountable/removable elected officials, rule of law to all citizens, equality (Health, education, welfare) - Methodspolice "monopoly of violence" + propaganda - Transitologyanalyze transition from dictatorship to democracy - **Factors of transitions** - Internal factors: PESC approach - External factors - Agency - USSR case study - Internal factors - (**perestroika** (economic restructuring) **glasnost** (transparency)) - Instability - External factors - The arms race - Reagan's policies - Soviet-Afghan war - Greece Case study - BackgroundThe Greek Junta "The Regime of the Colonels" (Military dictatorship '67-'74anti-democratic - Fall of Junta: - Internal factorseco. Instability, severe political repression, student uprising in '73 (symbol of resistance) - AgencyColonel Georgios Papadopoulos overthrown by brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis '73: mass protests pushed for change - External factorsEuropean pressure (isolation), US initially supported but switched policy - '81 Greece becomes a member **(enlargement)** - Portugal Case study-Estado Novo - Minister of Finance Salazar recovers eco. mild fascism - The Carnation Revolution ("bloodless") - Internal Factorsoverextended military engagements in colonial Africa, discontent in population due to economic hardships + political oppression - AgencyGeneral Antonio de Spinola opposed continuation of colonial warsmilitary coup - External factorsdecolonization and internal pressure from democratic gov., return of political exiles - '86 joined the EU - Case study: Francoist Spain - Context: Spanish civil war '36-'39'36Military coup from Franco against leftist gov. (was making progress); received support from Mussolini and Hitler - '39 Franco establishes military dictatorshipcentralized power, anti-communism, nationalism, catholic church - Autarky: eco. Self-sufficiencyeco. Isolation - No one wanted to communicate with Spain after WW2 - '59 Plan de Estabilizacióneco. + investment Growth - Francos death '75 - Internal factorsauthoritarian regime left power vaccum filled by King Juan Carlos I (facilitated shift to democracy) - Eco. Pressure + desire for modernization and democracy - Agency King Juan Carlos I + Adolfo Suárez (PM) - Suárezpolitical reforms (free elections, legalization of parties) - '77 General elections - '78 Spanish constitutionparliamentary monarchy with decentralized structure - External Factors - '86 joined EU - Spanish transition - Pacto del Olvidoavoided addressing Franco-era atrocities - Established framework for Spain's political pluralism, decentralization, integration into European institutions - 30^th^ August 1980: Polish gov. agreed to all 21 of Solidarity's demands - It's important because it - Poland case study: Significance of "Solidarity" - Important dates: 1. 30^th^ August 1980: Polish gov. agreed to all 21 of Solidarity's demands i. showcases the momentum and power "Solidarity" had garnered and how a communist government was facing difficulties when the military was not employed (soviet fragility) 2. The government playing for time ii. This is extremely important because the gov. calculations were correct, as "Solidarity" did fraction off into itself and plans for martial law did later on go into effect when Jarulzelski gained power. It displays how perceptive the communist gov. was - It gave the Polish people a different perspective and proposed policies that won masses of people over. - Walesa became a symbol for the struggle of eastern Europe an helped overseas countries like USA play into their narrative; he also won Nobel Peace Prize in '83 - It was backed by the catholic church which heavily backed the validity of the organization and helped push back communist intervention, as the catholic church had so much power.