History Exam Notes PDF

Final Exam is worth 10% of your final mark Period 2 -Monday, Jan. 27 -Time: 9-10:30 am Period 5 -Wednesday, Jan. 22-Time: 9-10:30 am ​ Unit 1 Historiography ​ ​ Presentism ​ Analyze the tension that can exist between conflicting past and present-day viewpoints about historical events/decis...

Final Exam is worth 10% of your final mark Period 2 -Monday, Jan. 27 -Time: 9-10:30 am Period 5 -Wednesday, Jan. 22-Time: 9-10:30 am ​ Unit 1 Historiography ​ ​ Presentism ​ Analyze the tension that can exist between conflicting past and present-day viewpoints about historical events/decisions.​ Primary Source ​ clues that have been left behind and discovered, be they artifacts (e.g., tools, photographs, buildings, drawings), documents (e.g., wills, catalogs, posters), or written and oral descriptions​ Secondary Sources ​ Resources such as texts, documentaries, and narratives written by historians Unit 2 Canada on The World Stage (WW1)​ ​ Militarism ​ To protect their countries and colonies and to challenge other countries for new territories countries. ​ The ‘race’ is driven by the fear that other countries will establish military superiority and, therefore, become dominant. ​ Ex: The Dreadnought -The Germans challenged the British for supremacy of the seas​ Alliance ​ Is a Friendly Pact or Agreement between two or more countries ​ As military and territorial tensions arose countries began to form alliances for protection and mutual interest. ​ Ex: Triple Entente is France, Great Britain, and Russia​ Imperialism ​ Is when a country expands and takes over other countries to become more powerful ​ Ex: European countries competing for colonies would lead to war​ Nationalism ​ The feeling of Dedication and love for your own country ​ Or the desire to be free of foreign control ​ Nationalism comes from a shared sense of cultural heritage. It manifests itself as pride in one’s country. ​ Ex: the belief that certain territories should belong only to a certain group of people and that certain genetic groups of people were superior. Ruling over colonies was a symbol of national pride. Battle in WW1 (Color-coded!)​ ​ Battle of Somme ​ Battle of Second Ypres​ Battle of Hill 70​ Vimy Ridge​ Passchendaele Battle of The Somme (July 1, 1916) ​ The Battle of the Somme (1 July - 18 November 1916) was a joint operation between British and French forces intended to achieve a decisive victory over the Germans on the Western Front. For many in Britain, the resulting battle remains the most painful and infamous episode of the First World War. Objective (Somme) ​ The primary aim of the battle was to relieve pressure on French forces at Verdun and to break through German defensive lines. The British, under the command of General Sir Douglas Haig, hoped to make significant gains against the entrenched German positions. ​ Scale and Causalities (Somme) ​ It was one of the bloodiest battles in history, with an estimated 1 million men wounded or killed on both sides. The British forces alone suffered nearly 420,000 casualties, while the Germans lost around 450,000. The French had around 200,000 casualties.​ Tactics and Technology (Somme) ​ The battle began with a week-long artillery bombardment aimed at destroying German defenses. However, the bombardment failed to achieve its objectives, and the infantry assault that followed met stiff resistance from German machine guns and barbed wire defenses. The use of tanks, introduced on the battlefield during this battle, was a significant technological development, though they were initially unreliable and had limited impact. ​ Outcomes (Somme) ​ The battle ended with no clear victory, and the Allies made only limited territorial gains. However, the heavy losses suffered by both sides, particularly the Germans, had long-term strategic consequences. The battle marked the beginning of a war of attrition that would continue for the remainder of World War I. ​ The Legacy (Somme) ​ The Battle of the Somme became a symbol of the horrors of war, especially due to the high death toll and the seemingly futile nature of the fighting. It also marked a turning  point in how modern warfare would be conducted, highlighting the need for more advanced tactics and technologies.​ Significance of The Battle of Somme ​ The Battle of the Somme (July 1–November 18, 1916) was one of World War I's bloodiest battles, with over 1 million casualties. It marked the first major use of tanks and showcased the horrors of trench warfare. Despite heavy losses, the battle ended in a stalemate, with minimal strategic gains. The Somme highlighted the devastating cost of the war and the failure of new tactics and technology to break the deadlock. It became a symbol of the futility of the conflict and the heavy sacrifices made.​ Second Battle of Ypres (April 15, 1915) ​ The Battle of Ypres was a series of engagements during the First World War, near the Belgian city of Ypres, between the German and the Allied armies (Belgian, French, and British colonial forces). During the five engagements, casualties may have surpassed one million. German Use of Poison Gas (Second Ypres) ​ On April 22, 1915, the Germans released chlorine gas against the French colonial forces holding the line near Ypres. The gas caused widespread panic, as soldiers were unprepared for this new form of warfare. The gas left a lingering and devastating effect, causing suffocation and severe respiratory problems for those exposed. The Allied Response (Second Ypres) ​ The gas attack led to a gap in the Allied lines, which the Germans attempted to exploit. However, the Allies managed to regroup and bring reinforcements, including Canadian troops, who became instrumental in holding the line. The Canadian soldiers, in particular, received widespread recognition for their bravery and resilience during this battle. Casualties (Second Ypres) ​ The battle was costly for both sides. The Allies suffered approximately 70,000 casualties, while the Germans lost about 35,000. The use of poison gas contributed significantly to the high number of casualties. Strategic Impact (Second Ypres) ​ Although the Germans initially gained some ground, they did not achieve a decisive breakthrough. The front lines largely remained static after the battle, with trench warfare dominating the Western Front. The battle marked a shift like warfare, with the introduction of chemical weapons creating new challenges for soldiers. ​ The Poem (Second Ypres) ​ At the Battle of Second Ypres in April 1915, McCrae spent 17 days caring for the wounded and performing surgery on Canadian and Allied troops. Exhausted and saddened by the death of a close friend, he composed In Flanders Fields during a brief rest. Significance of the Battle of Second Ypres ​ The Battle of Second Ypres (April 22–May 25, 1915) is important for being the first major use of chemical weapons, with the Germans releasing chlorine gas. Despite the gas attack, Canadian troops helped hold the line. The battle took place in a key area,  stopping the Germans from breaking through. It caused many casualties and led to new tactics and the use of gas masks. Battle of Hill 70 (August 15, 1917) ​ The Battle of Ypres was a series of engagements during the First World War, near the Belgian city of Ypres, between the German and the Allied armies (Belgian, French, and British colonial forces). During the five engagements, casualties may have surpassed one million.n Strategic Importance (Hill 70) ​ Hill 70 was crucial because its position provided a commanding view of the surrounding areas, especially the German defensive lines in and around Lens. Capturing this position would enable the Allies to disrupt German operations and control the approaches to the city. ​ Canadian Corps' Role (Hill 70) ​ The Canadian Corps, under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie, was responsible for seizing Hill 70 from the Germans. The Canadians were known for their effectiveness in battle, and this operation marked another opportunity to demonstrate their skill and resolve. The Battle Plan (Hill 70) ​ The Canadians launched a well-planned attack on August 15, 1917. The plan focused not just on capturing the hill but also on holding it against likely German counterattacks. The Canadians employed diversionary tactics, careful artillery bombardment, and used ​ Defensive positions to ensure they could hold their ground once the hill was taken. ​ Tactical Innovation (Hill 70) ​ One of the key aspects of the battle was the Canadian Corps' innovative approach to modern warfare. They used a combination of artillery, coordinated infantry assaults, and defensive measures to capture and maintain control over Hill 70. Their attention to securing the hill rather than just advancing was crucial to their success. Heavy Casualties (Hill 70) ​ The battle was costly for both sides. The Canadian forces suffered over 9,000 casualties, including approximately 1,600 killed. The Germans also suffered significant losses, though they ultimately failed to retake the hill. ​ Aftermath and Legacy (Hill 70) ​ The battle was a success for the Canadians. Not only did they capture and hold Hill 70, but they also forced the Germans to divert resources to counter the position, weakening their ability to mount an effective defense elsewhere. This battle is often seen as one of the most significant Canadian victories of World War I. It was also a demonstration of the Canadians’ growing tactical sophistication and solidified their reputation as one of the most effective fighting forces on the Western Front. Significance of the Battle of Hill 70 ​ The Battle of Hill 70 (August 15-25, 1917) was a key Canadian victory in World War I. Led by General Arthur Currie, Canadian forces successfully captured a strategic high point near Lens, France. The battle showed the effectiveness of new tactics, like the  "creeping barrage." Despite heavy losses, with around 9,200 Canadian casualties, the battle helped strengthen Canada’s military reputation and identity. Vimy Ridge (April 9, 1917) ​ The Battle of Vimy Ridge began at 5:30 a.m. on Easter Monday, April 9, 1917. The first wave of 15,000-20,000 Canadian soldiers, many heavily laden with equipment, attacked through the wind-driven snow and sleet into the face of deadly machine gun fire ​ Strategic Importance (Vimy Ridge) ​ Vimy Ridge was a heavily fortified German position that overlooked the surrounding area, including the vital French town of Arras. The Germans had held the ridge for most of the war, and it was a key defensive point for them. Capturing it would give the Allies a strategic advantage and disrupt German positions along the Western Front. The Canadian Corps’ Role (Vimy Ridge) ​ made up of all four Canadian divisions, was tasked with capturing Vimy Ridge. The Canadian Corps was under the command of General Julian Byng, and the operation was part of a broader effort to break the stalemate on the Western Front. Planning and Preparation (Vimy Ridge) ​ The Canadians meticulously planned the attack, using detailed maps and conducting extensive training, including rehearsals for the assault. They also focused on effective coordination between artillery, infantry, and engineers. For example, they developed tactics like the creeping barrage, where artillery would fire just ahead of the advancing infantry, providing cover while preventing the Germans from retaliating.​ The Battle (Vimy Ridge) ​ On April 9, 1917, Easter Monday, the Canadian forces launched a coordinated attack against the heavily fortified German positions on the ridge. The Canadians faced difficult terrain, deep trenches, and well-entrenched German defenders. Despite these challenges, the Canadians advanced with remarkable discipline and coordination. The Creeping Barrage (Vimy Ridge) ​ The tactic proved highly effective, as the Canadians moved forward with their artillery support, overwhelming the German defenses. By the end of the four-day battle, the Canadians had successfully captured Vimy Ridge, marking a significant victory for the Allies.​ Casualties (Vimy Ridge) ​ The battle was costly. The Canadians suffered approximately 10,600 casualties, including 3,598 killed. Despite the heavy losses, the battle was a success, as they took control of a strategically important position that had been elusive for other Allied forces for years. The Aftermath (Vimy Ridge) ​ The capture of Vimy Ridge was not only a military victory but also a moment of national pride for Canada. The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of the Canadian Corps and solidified its reputation as an elite fighting force. It was also a unifying event for Canada, as it marked the first time that all four Canadian divisions fought together as a cohesive unit. Legacy (Vimy Ridge) ​ The Battle of Vimy Ridge is often considered a defining moment in Canadian history. It is seen as the point at which Canada began to emerge as a more independent and recognized nation on the world stage. The success at Vimy Ridge fostered a sense of national identity and pride that would endure long after the war ended. ​ The Vimy Memorial, located on the ridge, stands as a tribute to the Canadian soldiers who fought and died during the battle. It is also dedicated to all Canadians who served in the First World War. Significance of the Battle of Vimy Ridge ​ The Battle of Vimy Ridge, fought in April 1917, was a defining moment for Canada. It marked the first time the Canadian Corps fought as a unified force, achieving a crucial victory over German troops. The capture of the ridge was strategically important, though it came at the cost of over 10,600 Canadian casualties. The Vimy Memorial in France honors those who fought there, and Vimy Ridge Day on April 9th celebrates Canada's role in the battle and its emerging national identity. Passchendaele (July 31, 1917) ​ The Battle of Passchendaele, also known as the Third Battle of Ypres, was a major engagement during World War I that took place from July 31 to November 10, 1917, near the town of Passchendaele in Belgium. It was a part of a broader Allied campaign aimed at breaking the stalemate on the Western Front, but it became infamous for its horrific conditions and high casualties. Strategic Objective (Passchendaele) ​ The primary aim of the battle was to capture the ridges around the town of Passchendaele (also called Zonnebeke Ridge) in the Ypres Salient. The Allies hoped to seize the high ground to control the region and potentially disrupt German communications and supply lines. The broader strategic goal was to break through the German defensive positions and achieve a breakthrough on the Western Front. The Allied Command (Passchendaele) ​ The battle was led by General Sir Douglas Haig, the British commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Haig planned to push the Germans back and take control of the high ground, which would also allow the Allies to advance towards the German-held coast of Belgium. ​ The Conditions (Passchendaele) ​ The battle became notorious for its appalling weather conditions. The region had received heavy rain during the preceding months, turning the battlefield into a quagmire of thick mud. This made movement extremely difficult for both the infantry and artillery. Soldiers often found themselves stuck in the muck, and equipment, including tanks and artillery, frequently became bogged down. The terrain, combined with intense shelling, created an almost impassable battlefield. ​ The Battle's Progress (Passchendaele) ​ The Battle of Passchendaele started on July 31, 1917, with artillery and infantry attacks by British and Canadian forces. Progress was slow due to bad weather, strong German defenses, and logistical issues. By fall, the battle had turned into a grueling fight with heavy losses, and despite capturing some ground, little was gained. The Canadians took  over in October, but the cost of lives was immense. ​ Canadian Involvement (Passchendaele) ​ The Canadian Corps, under the command of General Arthur Currie, played a crucial role in the final phase of the battle. They were tasked with capturing Passchendaele itself. The Canadians executed a well-coordinated attack in late October and early November, overcoming the difficult terrain and heavy German resistance. Despite the horrendous conditions, the Canadians managed to capture Passchendaele on November 6, 1917. However, the town was almost destroyed, and the victory was achieved at a tremendous cost. Casualties (Passchendaele) ​ The battle was one of the most costly of the war. The Allied forces suffered an estimated 300,000 casualties, including over 70,000 killed, wounded, or missing. The Canadian Corps alone suffered around 16,000 casualties in their final assault on Passchendaele. The German casualties were also significant, though the figures are harder to determine. Aftermath and Legacy (Passchendaele) ​ Passchendaele was captured, but it’s seen as a Pyrrhic victory with minimal gains and huge losses. The battle didn’t change the course of the war and highlights the futility of trench warfare. It’s remembered for its horrific conditions, the suffering of soldiers, and the high cost of lives, symbolizing the tragic sacrifices made during World War I. Significance of the Battle of Passchendaele ​ The Battle of Passchendaele, fought from July to November 1917, was a costly Allied victory during World War I. Despite capturing the village of Passchendaele, the battle is remembered for its terrible conditions, with heavy rain turning the battlefield into a muddy swamp. The Allies suffered over 200,000 casualties, including 16,000 Canadians. The battle highlighted the brutal realities of modern warfare and is remembered for the immense sacrifices made by soldiers.​ Back to Unit 2 Lusitania ​ The Lusitania was a British passenger ship that was owned by the Cunard Line and was first launched in 1906. Built for the transatlantic passenger trade, it was luxurious and noted for its speed. During World War I the Lusitania was sunk by a German torpedo, resulting in great loss of life. ​ What Happened with the Lusitania? ​ On May 7, 1915, the German submarine (U-boat) U-20 torpedoed and sank the Lusitania, a swift-moving British cruise liner traveling from New York to Liverpool, England. Of the 1,959 men, women, and children on board, 1,195 perished, including 123 Americans.​ What was the result of the sinking of the Lusitania? ​ The sinking of the Lusitania on May 7, 1915, by a German U-boat killed over 1,100 people, including 128 Americans. This angered the U.S. and shifted public opinion  against Germany. The attack strained U.S.-Germany relations and increased pressure for the U.S. to join World War I. Although the U.S. didn't enter the war immediately, the event played a key role in eventually bringing the U.S. into the conflict in 1917, partly due to Germany's continued use of unrestricted submarine warfare Unrestricted Submarine Warfare ​ Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare where submarines attack ships (military and civilian) without warning, instead of following traditional rules like giving warnings or allowing time for evacuation. Germany used this tactic during World War I, notably targeting merchant ships and passenger liners, including the Lusitania. Conscription ​ It made all male citizens between the ages of 20 and 45 subject to military service if called, for the duration of the war. Why did Robert Borden want to pass Conscription? ​ Military value –end the war sooner. ​ Canada’s influential contribution to the war would be helpful in post-war politics. How did Robert Borden pass Conscription? ​ In 1917, Robert Borden passed conscription to boost Canadian troops during WWI, due to heavy casualties and pressure from Britain. While English Canadians supported it, many French Canadians opposed it. Borden formed a government alliance and called an election to support the law. The Military Service Act made men aged 20-45 eligible for military service, with some exemptions. The decision was controversial but necessary for the war effort. ​ War Time Elections Act ​ Gave women with relatives fighting overseas the right to vote ​ Took the vote away from enemy aliens -people from a country in which Canada was at war (including Germans and Ukrainians)​ Military Voters Act ​ Gave the soldiers overseas the right to vote in any riding and thus their vote could be added to a riding’s tally to bolster Borden’s votes. ​ Took the vote away from conscientious objectors/ pacifists -people opposed to war for moral or religious reasons Which countries were the big three at the Paris Peace Conference? ​ France – Represented by Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau. ​ United Kingdom – Represented by Prime Minister David Lloyd George. ​ United States – Represented by President Woodrow Wilson. Was the Treaty of Versailles unfair? ​ The Treaty of Versailles (1919) is seen as unfair by many, especially toward Germany, as it imposed harsh punishments without their input. Critics argue this caused resentment and led to World War II. However, the Allies felt these terms were needed to prevent future wars. Its fairness depends on how one views the balance between punishment and peace. Sudeetenland ​ During World War I, the Sudetenland was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was a region with a significant ethnic German population, located along the empire's northern border with Germany. After the war ended and the Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved in 1918, the Sudetenland became part of the newly formed country of Czechoslovakia. Tensions remained between the ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland and the Czechoslovak government, which played a role in the region's later significance during World War II. What is Rhineland? ​ The Rhineland is a region in western Germany. After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles banned Germany from having troops there. In 1936, Hitler violated the treaty by sending German troops into the Rhineland, signaling the start of his aggressive expansion and leading to World War II. ​ What is the Polish Corridor? ​ The Polish Corridor was a strip of land created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, giving Poland access to the Baltic Sea and separating Germany from East Prussia. It angered many Germans and contributed to tensions between Germany and Poland, playing a role in the outbreak of World War II. What was Wilson’s Fourteen Points? ​ Wilson’s Fourteen Points were a set of principles proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 to outline a fair and lasting peace after World War I. The points focused on diplomacy, self-determination, and the creation of the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts. Wilson’s Fourteen Points included: ​ Open diplomacy (no secret treaties). ​ Freedom of the seas. ​ Free trade and reduced military armaments. ​ Self-determination for nations, allows them to decide their future. ​ Establishment of the League of Nations to promote peace and cooperation. Enemy Aliens ​ During WWI and WWII in Canada, "enemy aliens" were people from countries at war with Canada, such as Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Japan. They faced restrictions, like registration and sometimes internment in camps. This led to debates about civil rights. Why were Ukrainians disproportionately targeted? ​ Ukrainians in Canada were disproportionately targeted during WWI because many were from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was at war with Canada. Despite their peaceful lives in Canada, they were viewed with suspicion and many were interned, facing unfair treatment due to fear and prejudice. Triple Alliance ​ Italy, Germany, and Austria-Hungary Triple Entente ​ Britain, France, and Russia Canadian Independence Significance Chanak Affair ​ The Chanak Affair was significant because it showed Canada’s growing independence from Britain. When Britain sought Canadian support in 1922, Prime Minister Mackenzie King refused without consulting Parliament, marking a key shift in Canada’s foreign policy toward more autonomy. Significance King-bing Affair ​ The King-Bing Affair of 1926 was a constitutional crisis where Governor General Lord Byng refused Prime Minister Mackenzie King's request to dissolve Parliament. The event highlighted the power of the Governor General and led to a stronger convention that the Governor General should follow the Prime Minister's advice. It also helped King regain public support and return to power. Significance Statue of Westminister ​ The Statute of Westminster (1931) was significant because it granted full legislative independence to British dominions, including Canada. It allowed them to make their laws without British approval, marking a key step in Canada’s journey to full sovereignty. The Canadian Flag Controversy ​ The Canadian Flag Controversy in the 1960s centered around replacing the British-linked Red Ensign with a distinct Canadian flag. Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson proposed a flag with a red maple leaf, sparking debate. Despite opposition, the new flag was adopted on February 15, 1965, marking a key step in affirming Canada’s national identity. How did Canada get its current flag? ​ Canada's current flag, featuring a red maple leaf, was adopted on February 15, 1965. Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson proposed to create a distinct national symbol, replacing the British-linked Red Ensign. Despite some opposition, the new flag was approved and became a symbol of Canada's independence. Unit 2 Canada on The World Stage (WW2)​ ​ Weimar Republic (1919 to 1933) ​ The Weimar Republic was Germany's democratic government from 1919 to 1933, established after World War I. It faced economic problems, political unrest, and the consequences of the Treaty of Versailles. The republic collapsed when Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933, leading to the establishment of Nazi Germany. What were some of the factors that led to Hitler’s rise to power? ​ Hitler’s rise to power was influenced by several factors: resentment over the Treaty of Versailles, economic instability (especially from the Great Depression), the weak Weimar Republic, effective Nazi propaganda, political extremism, Hitler’s personal charisma, and backroom political deals. These factors created the conditions for Hitler to gain support and eventually seize control in 1933.​ The Factors that led to Hitler’s rise to power (Detailed)  ​ Treaty of Versailles: The harsh terms of the treaty, which ended World War I, caused widespread resentment in Germany. Many Germans felt humiliated by the treaty’s demands, including territorial losses, reparations, and the "war guilt" clause. ​ Economic Instability: Germany faced severe economic problems, including hyperinflation in the early 1920s and the Great Depression in 1929. Unemployment and poverty were widespread, creating frustration and a desire for radical change. ​ Weak Weimar Republic: The Weimar Republic, established after World War I, was politically unstable. Frequent changes in government, coalition failures, and a lack of strong leadership made it difficult to address Germany’s problems effectively. ​ Nazi Propaganda: Hitler and the Nazi Party used powerful propaganda to spread their message of nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anti-communism. Hitler portrayed himself as a strong leader who could restore Germany to its former glory. ​ Political Extremism: Economic hardship and dissatisfaction led many people to turn to extreme political solutions, with both communists and fascists gaining support. Hitler exploited this by appealing to national pride and fear of communism. ​ Hitler’s Charisma and Leadership: Hitler’s personal charisma and oratory skills allowed him to connect with a wide range of people, inspiring loyalty and support from various groups, including the military, industrialists, and the general public. ​ Backroom Political Deals: In 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Paul von Hindenburg through political maneuvering. The Nazi Party was given a position of power, and once in office, Hitler quickly consolidated his control. The Road to War ​ The road to World War II was caused by the Treaty of Versailles, which left Germany angry and seeking revenge. This led to the rise of aggressive leaders like Hitler, Mussolini, and Japan’s military. Germany’s actions, such as invading Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, increased tensions. Japan also expanded in Asia. Western countries tried to avoid war by appeasing these actions, but it failed. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland, leading Britain and France to declare war, starting World War II.​ The Failure of the League of Nations (Summarized) ​ The League of Nations failed for several reasons. The U.S. never joined, weakening its influence. The League lacked its military force, relying on member nations who were often unwilling to act. It also failed to stop aggression, like Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and Italy’s attack on Ethiopia. The unanimous decision-making process made it hard to act quickly, and global instability from the Great Depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes further weakened the League. These issues led to its collapse and the creation of the United Nations in 1945. The League of Nations' failure reasons (Detailed) ​ U.S. Non-Participation: Although the U.S. helped create the League, it never joined due to opposition in Congress, weakening the League's global influence. ​ No Military Power: The League lacked its military force to enforce decisions, relying on member nations to take action, which they were often unwilling to do. ​ Failure to Stop Aggression: The League couldn’t prevent invasions, such as Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and Italy’s attack on Ethiopia in 1935, as it lacked the power to intervene effectively. ​ Unanimous Voting System: The requirement for unanimous decisions made it hard for the League to act quickly or decisively, especially when major powers disagreed on how to respond to crises. ​ Global Instability: The Great Depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes in  Germany, Italy, and Japan further destabilized the global order, undermining the League’s ability to maintain peace. Japanese Invasion Manchuria (September 18, 1931) ​ The Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931 was driven by Japan’s desire for resources and expansion. Using the staged Mukden Incident as a pretext, Japan invaded Manchuria and established the puppet state of Manchukuo. The League of Nations condemned the invasion but couldn’t stop it, highlighting its inability to prevent aggression from powerful nations. This event contributed to the lead-up to World War II. Italian Invasion Ethiopia (October 3, 1935) ​ The Italian invasion of Ethiopia took place in 1935 when Benito Mussolini sought to expand Italy’s empire in Africa. Despite Ethiopia’s resistance, Italy quickly defeated the country using modern weapons. The League of Nations condemned the invasion and imposed ineffective sanctions. In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, exposing the League’s inability to prevent aggression and increasing tensions leading to World War II. Anschuluss (March 12, 1938) ​ Anschluss was the 1938 annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany. Hitler wanted to unite all German-speaking people, and after pressuring Austria, it was absorbed into Germany. The move violated international agreements, but there was little opposition. It was an important step in Hitler’s expansion leading to World War II. ​ Remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 7, 1936) ​ On March 7, 1936, Adolf Hitler sent German troops into the Rhineland, a region that had been demilitarized under the Treaty of Versailles after World War I. This move was a direct violation of the treaty, but neither Britain nor France took military action to stop it. The failure to intervene emboldened Hitler, strengthened his position at home, and paved the way for further territorial expansion, eventually leading to World War II. Munich Agreement (September 30, 1938) ​ The Munich Agreement, signed on September 30, 1938, allowed Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia, in exchange for Hitler’s promise of no further territorial expansion. Britain’s Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and France’s Prime Minister Édouard Daladier hoped that conceding to Hitler’s demands would prevent war. However, the agreement is seen as a failure, as it emboldened Hitler, who continued his aggression and eventually invaded Poland in 1939, leading to World War II. The Munich Agreement is often criticized for not recognizing the true threat of Nazi expansion Appeasement Policy ​ The Appeasement Policy was a strategy used by Britain and France in the 1930s, where they made concessions to Nazi Germany, hoping to avoid war. Notable examples include allowing Hitler to remilitarize the Rhineland (1936) and annex the Sudetenland (1938) through the Munich Agreement. However, the policy failed, as Hitler’s aggression continued, leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939 The Remilitarization of the Rhineland (March 7, 1936) ​ Britain and France did not intervene when Hitler sent German troops into the Rhineland, violating the Treaty of Versailles. The Munich Agreement (September 30, 1938) ​ Britain and France allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, hoping that this would prevent further expansion. Hitler promised that he had no more territorial ambitions.​ What was the difference between Churchill and Chamberlain? ​ The main difference between Winston Churchill and Neville Chamberlain was their approach to Nazi Germany. Chamberlain followed a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid war by conceding to Hitler’s demands, while Churchill opposed Hitler’s aggression and advocated for stronger resistance. When WWII broke out, Chamberlain resigned, and Churchill became Prime Minister, leading Britain with determination to fight against Nazi Germany. The Difference Between Churchill and Chamberlain (Detailed) ​ Appeasement vs. Opposition: Chamberlain, as Prime Minister, followed a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid war by conceding to Hitler's demands, such as allowing the annexation of the Sudetenland in the Munich Agreement of 1938. He believed that satisfying some of Germany's territorial demands would prevent a larger conflict. On the other hand, Churchill was a staunch critic of appeasement and warned that Hitler's expansionism would lead to war, advocating for a more confrontational stance against Nazi aggression. ​ Leadership during WWII: When World War II broke out, Chamberlain's leadership became increasingly unpopular due to his failure to prevent the war. In 1940, he resigned and was replaced by Churchill, who became Prime Minister. Churchill's leadership was defined by his determination to fight Nazi Germany, his inspirational speeches, and his refusal to negotiate with Hitler, rallying Britain to resist invasion. Plebiscite ​ A plebiscite is a type of vote where the public is asked for their opinion on a specific issue, but it is usually non-binding, meaning the results don't always directly affect decisions or policies. It is more about gauging public sentiment on an issue, such as national or international matters. ​ Referendum ​ A referendum is a binding vote where the public votes on a specific proposal, law, or constitutional change. The outcome of a referendum typically has legal or constitutional consequences and directly influences policy decisions. Stages of the Holocaust ​ Defining ​ Stripping of Rights  ​ Segregation ​ Concentration ​ Extermination​ Stages of the Holocaust (Defining) ​ The Nazis identified Jews and other groups (e.g., Romani people, disabled individuals, LGBTQ+ persons) as "undesirable" or "inferior." ​ This stage involved propaganda campaigns that spread antisemitic ideologies, portraying Jews as enemies of the state and society. Stages of the Holocaust (Stripping of Rights) ​ Legal measures were enacted to remove Jews from public and social life. ​ Nuremberg Laws (1935): Stripped Jews of citizenship and banned intermarriage with non-Jews. ​ Jews were excluded from professions, education, and public services. ​ Businesses owned by Jews were boycotted or confiscated. Stages of the Holocaust (Segregation) ​ In Germany and occupied territories, they were confined to ghettos, such as the Warsaw Ghetto, where they lived in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions. ​ Jews were marked with identifying symbols, such as the yellow Star of Davi.d Stages of the Holocaust (Concentration Camps) ​ Jews and other targeted groups were rounded up and sent to concentration cam.ps ​ Camps such as Dachau and Bergen-Belsen initially served as detention and forced labor ca.mps ​ Many died from starvation, disease, or brutal treatment ​ Families were separated, and mass deportations to camps began​ Stages of the Holocaust (Extermination) ​ The Final Solution was the Nazis' plan for the systematic extermination of. Jews ​ Death camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau and Treblinka were established to carry out industrialized killings, primarily using gas chambers. ​ Einsatzgruppen conducted mass shootings in occupied territories ​ Approximately six million Jews and millions of others were murdered in this stage Einsengrupten ​ The Einsatzgruppen were Nazi SS mobile killing squads during World War II, tasked with systematically murdering Jews, Romani people, and others in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. They carried out mass shootings, used gas vans, and were responsible for over 1 million deaths, including the Babi Yar massacre. After the war, some leaders were tried for crimes against humanity. M.S. St. Louis ​ The M.S. St. Louis was a German ship carrying 937 Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi persecution in 1939. After being denied entry to Cuba, the U.S., and Canada, the ship returned to Europe, where many passengers later fell under Nazi control. Around 254 passengers were killed in the Holocaust. The incident highlights the global failure to offer refuge to Jews during this time. Holodomor ​ The Holodomor was a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine from 1932 to 1933, caused by Stalin's policies of forced collectivization and grain requisitioning. It resulted in the deaths of 3.5 to 5 million Ukrainians. Many consider it a deliberate act of genocide aimed at suppressing Ukrainian resistance. The Soviet government denied the famine and restricted aid, exacerbating the crisis. The Holodomor is recognized as genocide by Ukraine and several other countries. Hideki Tojo ​ Hideki Tojo was the Prime Minister of Japan from 1941 to 1944 and a key figure in Japan's militaristic government during World War II. He played a central role in Japan's expansionist policies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor. Tojo was responsible for war crimes, including atrocities like the Nanking Massacre. After Japan's defeat, he was arrested, tried for war crimes, and executed in 1948 Benito Mussolini ​ Benito Mussolini was the dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943 and the founder of Fascism. He rose to power through the March on Rome, established a totalitarian regime, and allied with Nazi Germany during World War II. Mussolini was deposed in 1943 and executed by Italian partisans in 1945. His fascist policies and alliance with Hitler contributed to the devastation of the war Joseph Stain ​ Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until he died in 1953. He established a totalitarian regime, marked by purges, repression, and the deaths of millions. Stalin implemented forced collectivization and industrialization, transforming the Soviet Union into a global power but causing widespread suffering. During World War II, the Soviet Union played a key role in defeating Nazi Germany. Stalin’s legacy is one of both significant industrial progress and immense human cost. Adolf Hitler  ​ Adolf Hitler was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, responsible for the outbreak of World War II and the Holocaust. He promoted racism, antisemitism, and Aryan supremacy, leading to the deaths of millions. Hitler's invasion of Poland in 1939 started the war, and his policies resulted in the genocide of six million Jews and others in the Holocaust. The war caused widespread devastation, with an estimated 70-85 million deaths. Hitler died by suicide in 1945 as Germany faced defeat. Battles in WW2 (Color-coded!)​ ​ Battle of Hong Kong D-Day Battle of Ortona Liberation of the Netherlands Battle of Stalingrad Battle of Atlantic​ ​ Battle of Hong Kong (December 8, 1941) ​ The Battle of Hong Kong was a significant conflict during World War II that took place from December 8 to 25, 1941, when the Japanese Empire attacked and invaded the British colony of Hong Kong. It was part of Japan's broader strategy to expand its empire in East Asia. ​ Context (Hong Kong) ​ The battle occurred shortly after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and its broader offensive in Southeast Asia. Hong Kong was a British colony, and its defense was primarily carried out by a small force of British, Canadian, Indian, and local Chinese troops. ​ Japanese Invasion (Hong Kong) ​ Japan launched its attack on Hong Kong on December 8, 1941, just hours after the Pearl Harbor attack. The Japanese forces, vastly superior in numbers and equipment, quickly overwhelmed the defenders. The Battle (Hong Kong) ​ Despite determined resistance, the defenders struggled with limited resources, poor weather conditions, and a lack of reinforcements. The British forces, along with their allies, put up fierce resistance in several key locations, including the Sham Shui Po and Victoria Peak areas, but were ultimately unable to repel the Japanese assault. Surrender (Hong Kong) ​ On December 25, 1941, after nearly three weeks of fighting, the British and Commonwealth forces were forced to surrender to Japan. This day became known as Black Christmas. The defense of Hong Kong was the last major British resistance before the Japanese took full control of the colony. Aftermath (Hong Kong) ​ After the surrender, thousands of British, Canadian, and Indian prisoners of war were taken by the Japanese. Hong Kong remained under Japanese occupation until the end of World War II in 1945. The battle marked the first time British forces had surrendered to a foreign enemy in over 100 years. Significance (Hong Kong) ​ The Battle of Hong Kong was significant for several reasons: it marked the first British surrender in over 100 years, allowed Japan to expand its control in East Asia, and dealt a blow to Allied morale. The battle led to the capture of thousands of prisoners of war and harsh treatment by Japan. It also fueled local resistance movements, with Hong Kong eventually returning to British control after Japan's defeat in 1945 D-Day (June 6, 1944) ​ The Battle of D-Day, also known as Operation Overlord, took place on June 6, 1944, and marked the beginning of the Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France during World War II. It was one of the largest amphibious military assaults in history and a turning point in the war The Invasion (D-Day) ​ On D-Day, Allied forces, primarily from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada, landed on five beaches in Normandy, France. The landings were preceded by extensive air and naval bombardments. The Beaches (D-Day) ​ The beaches were code-named Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword, with each beach assigned to different Allied forces. Objective (D-Day) ​ The goal was to establish a foothold in France, break through German defenses, and begin the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control. Resistance (D-Day) ​ Despite meticulous planning, the Allies faced fierce resistance from German forces, especially at Omaha Beach, where U.S. troops suffered heavy casualties. Aftermath (D-Day) ​ By the end of D-Day, over 156,000 Allied troops had landed in Normandy, and the operation was a success. However, the fighting continued for weeks, and it took several months to liberate France. Significance (D-Day)  ​ D-Day was a pivotal moment in the war, marking the start of the end for Nazi Germany. It opened a second front in Europe, which contributed to the eventual defeat of Nazi forces. Battle of Ortona (December 20, 1943) ​ The Battle of Ortona was a significant and intense battle during World War II, fought between December 20 and December 28, 1943, in the Italian town of Ortona, on the Adriatic coast. This battle was part of the larger Italian Campaign, during which Allied forces sought to advance northward after invading southern Italy. Context (Ortona) ​ The battle was part of the Allied effort to break through the German Gustav Line in central Italy and secure access to the Adriatic coast during the Italian Campaign. Combatants (Ortona) ​ The 1st Canadian Infantry Division faced elite German paratroopers of the 1st Parachute Division in intense fighting. Urban Warfare (Ortona) ​ The narrow streets and stone buildings of Ortona led to brutal house-to-house combat. Canadian troops used "mouse-holing," a tactic of blasting through walls to avoid exposed streets. Casualties (Ortona) ​ The battle caused over 2,300 Canadian casualties, with significant German losses, earning Ortona the nickname "Little Stalingrad." Outcome (Ortona) ​ The Canadians forced a German withdrawal and captured Ortona on December 28, 1943, though the victory came at a high cost and slowed the Allied advance. Significance (Ortona) ​ The Battle of Ortona was significant for showcasing Canadian military skill, particularly in urban combat, through tactics like mouse-holing. It secured a key position on the Adriatic coast, advancing the Allied campaign in Italy. Known as "Little Stalingrad," the battle highlighted the brutality of urban warfare and symbolized the courage and sacrifices of Canadian soldiers. Liberation of the Netherlands (September 1944) ​ The Liberation of the Netherlands was a pivotal World War II campaign, marking the end of Nazi occupation and the restoration of Dutch sovereignty. It occurred from September 1944 to May 1945, led by Allied forces, including Canadian troops, who played a central role. Operation Market Garden (1944) ​ The campaign began with this ambitious but ultimately flawed attempt to secure key bridges in the Netherlands. Its partial failure prolonged the occupation in parts of the country. The Hunger Winter (1944-1945) ​ Harsh German retaliation and supply blockades caused widespread starvation in occupied regions, leading to the death of thousands of Dutch civilians. Canadian Contributions (Liberation of the Netherlands) ​ Canadian forces liberated much of the Netherlands, including major cities like Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and The Hague. They also ensured the delivery of food and aid to starving civilians. Victory (1945) ​ The Netherlands was fully liberated with the surrender of German forces on May 5, 1945, just days before the end of the war in Europe. Significance (Liberation of the Netherlands) ​ The Liberation of the Netherlands ended Nazi occupation, saved millions from starvation during the Hunger Winter, secured vital supply routes for the Allies, and forged a lasting bond between Canada and the Netherlands, celebrated annually on Liberation Day. ​ Battle of Stalingrad (July 17, 1942) ​ The Battle of Stalingrad was one of the most significant and brutal confrontations of World War II, fought between August 23, 1942, and February 2, 1943, in the Soviet city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd). It marked a turning point in the war on the Eastern Front, with a decisive Soviet victory over Nazi Germany. Context (Stalingrad) ​ The battle was part of Germany’s strategy to capture oil-rich regions in the Soviet Union and to secure the southern front. Stalingrad was a key industrial city on the Volga River and symbolized Soviet resistance. Fierce Urban Combat (Stalingrad) ​ The battle was characterized by intense urban warfare, with both sides engaging in close-quarter combat, street fighting, and heavy artillery bombardment. The city was nearly destroyed during the conflict. German Encirclement and Defeat (Stalingrad)  ​ The Soviet Red Army encircled and trapped the German 6th Army inside the city by November 1942, cutting off their supply lines. After months of brutal fighting, the Germans were forced to surrender in February 1943. Casualties (Stalingrad) ​ The battle resulted in staggering casualties on both sides, with an estimated 2 million people killed, wounded, or captured. The German forces suffered about 300,000 casualties, including the entire 6th Army. Significance (Stalingrad) ​ The defeat marked the first major defeat of Nazi Germany and turned the tide of war on the Eastern Front. It significantly weakened German forces and boosted Soviet morale. ​ Battle of Atlantic (September 3, 1939) ​ The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest continuous military campaign of World War II, lasting from 1939 to 1945, and it was fought between the Allied powers (primarily the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada) and Nazi Germany. The battle centered around the control of the Atlantic Ocean's shipping lanes, crucial for transporting supplies, troops, and equipment. Objective (Atlantic) ​ The Allies sought to ensure the safe passage of merchant ships across the Atlantic, while Germany aimed to disrupt these supply lines using U-boats (submarines), surface warships, and air attacks. ​ U-Boat Threat (Atlantic) ​ The German U-boat fleet posed a significant threat, sinking thousands of Allied merchant vessels and warships, leading to significant losses of men and supplies. The German strategy, known as the "Wolfpack" tactic, involved attacking convoys in groups. ​ Allied Countermeasures (Atlantic) ​ The Allies employed various strategies to counter the U-boat threat, including convoy systems, sonar technology, depth charges, and air patrols. The invention of radar also helped detect U-boats more effectively. ​ Turning Points (Atlantic) ​ The battle saw turning points such as the Allied victory at the Battle of the Barents Sea (1942) and the breaking of the Enigma code by the British, which allowed them to intercept German communications. ​ Impact on the War (Atlantic) ​ The Battle of the Atlantic was vital to the Allied war effort. Control of the Atlantic allowed the Allies to bring crucial supplies to Britain and the Soviet Union and to launch the D-Day invasion in 1944. Casualties (Atlantic) ​ The battle led to the loss of over 70,000 Allied sailors, as well as the destruction of over 3,500 merchant ships, but the Allies' victory ensured the safe transportation of troops and supplies across the Atlantic. ​ Significance (Atlantic) ​ The Battle of the Atlantic was crucial for securing vital supply lines for the Allies, enabling the D-Day invasion and overall victory in World War II. The Allies’ success weakened Germany's naval capabilities, spurred technological advancements, and ensured the flow of critical resources, ultimately contributing to the defeat of Nazi Germany. What are the significance of convoys and wolfpacks? (Atlantic) ​ In the Battle of the Atlantic, convoys were groups of merchant ships escorted by warships to protect them from German U-boat attacks, ensuring vital supplies reached the Allies. Wolfpacks were groups of German U-boats that attacked convoys together, overwhelming their defenses. Initially successful, wolfpacks posed a significant threat, but the Allies countered with improved technology and tactics, eventually neutralizing their effectiveness. Convoys were essential for maintaining Allied supply lines, and the struggle between these strategies was pivotal to the outcome of the battle. Wolfpacks ​ Wolfpacks referred to groups of German U-boats that operated together in coordinated attacks on Allied shipping. The term "Wolfpack" was coined because of the way the submarines hunted in packs, much like wolves attacking prey. Canadian Contributions ​ ​ Canadian Contributions in Hong Kong ​ Canadian forces, including the Royal Rifles of Canada and Winnipeg Grenadiers, were sent to defend Hong Kong from a Japanese invasion. Despite fierce resistance, they were overwhelmed and forced to surrender on December 25, 1941. Over 1,600 Canadians were taken as prisoners of war, enduring harsh conditions for the rest of the war. Canadian Contributions in D-Day ​ On June 6, 1944, Canadian forces were tasked with securing Juno Beach during the Normandy Invasion. The Canadians faced heavy resistance but successfully established a beachhead and advanced inland, playing a crucial role in the overall success of the invasion and the liberation of Western Europe. Canadian Contributions in Ortona ​ In December 1943, Canadian forces fought for the Italian town of Ortona, facing intense urban combat against German forces. The Canadians used innovative tactics like "mouse-holing" to fight house-to-house. They captured the town on December 28, though at a heavy cost, with over 2,300 Canadian casualties. Canadian Contributions to the Liberation of the Netherlands ​ Between 1944 and 1945, Canadian forces liberated key cities in the Netherlands, including Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and provided essential food aid to a starving population. The Dutch people showed deep gratitude, and Canada’s role is celebrated every year on Liberation Day (May 5). Canadian Contributions in Stalingrad ​ While Canada did not directly participate in the Battle of Stalingrad, the country supported the Soviet Union through the Lend-Lease Act, supplying war materials and resources, and contributing to the broader Allied war effort. Canadian Contributions in Atlantic ​ The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) played a key role in protecting Atlantic convoys from German U-boats. They ensured the safe passage of vital supplies to Britain and the Soviet Union, which was crucial for the success of the Allied war effort. More WW2 Terms Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) ​ The first atomic bomb, "Little Boy", was dropped on Hiroshima by the B-29 bomber Enola Gay, killing 70,000–80,000 people instantly and causing widespread destruction. Nagasaki (August 9, 1945) ​ A second bomb, "Fat Man", was dropped on Nagasaki, killing 40,000–75,000 people and causing massive damage, though the hilly terrain limited the destruction compared to Hiroshima. Context (Dropping of the Atom bombs)  ​ The bombings were intended to force Japan to surrender quickly and avoid a costly invasion, following extensive conventional bombing of Japan. Aftermath (Dropping of the Atom bombs) ​ Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945, leading to the end of World War II, with the formal surrender signed on September 2, 1945. Significance (Dropping of the Atom bombs) ​ The bombings ended the war but began the nuclear age, raising ethical concerns and leading to global efforts to control nuclear weapons. ​ Bomb 1 ​ Hiroshima, Japan: The bomb dropped was called "Little Boy". It was a uranium-235 bomb dropped on August 6, 1945. ​ Bomb 2 ​ Nagasaki, Japan: The bomb dropped was called "Fat Man". It was a plutonium-239 bomb dropped on August 9, 1945 Why did Truman decide to drop the Atomic Bombs? ​ Truman decided to drop the atomic bombs to quickly end World War II, avoid a costly invasion of Japan, and minimize Allied casualties. Japan's refusal to surrender and the desire to demonstrate nuclear power to the Soviet Union also influenced his decision. Additionally, there was a sense of revenge for Pearl Harbor and war atrocities. The success of the Manhattan Project further contributed to the decision, as it justified the significant resources invested in developing the bomb. Unit 2 Canada on The World Stage (Cold War) Significance of Igor Gouzenko? ​ Igor Gouzenko, a Soviet cipher clerk who defected to Canada in 1945, exposed a Soviet espionage network operating in the West, revealing efforts to steal military and nuclear secrets. His defection heightened Cold War tensions, marked Canada's shift from ally to adversary of the Soviet Union, and led to arrests of Soviet spies. The Gouzenko Affair contributed to increased security measures and solidified Canada’s role in the Cold War. Exposure of Soviet Espionage (Igor Gouzenko) ​ Gouzenko’s defection revealed a Soviet espionage network operating in Canada and other Western countries. He brought evidence of Soviet efforts to infiltrate Western governments and steal military and nuclear secrets. Cold War Tensions (Igor Gouzenko)  ​ His revelations heightened suspicions about Soviet intentions and contributed to the growing Cold War tensions between the Soviet Union and Western powers, particularly the United States and Canada. Canadian Role in the Cold War (Igor Gouzenko) ​ Gouzenko’s actions marked Canada’s transition from a post-World War II ally of the Soviet Union to a more active participant in the Cold War. It also led to the creation of tighter security measures within Canada, particularly related to communist infiltration. The Gouzenko Affair (Igor Gouzenko) ​ His defection, known as the Gouzenko Affair, led to the arrest of several individuals, including Canadian government employees, who were accused of spying for the Soviets. This scandal brought attention to the issue of espionage in the Cold War era. NATO ​ NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is a military alliance formed in 1949 with the principle of collective defense, where an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. It was created to counter Soviet aggression during the Cold War and has since expanded to 30 members. NATO conducts joint military operations, and peacekeeping missions, and addresses global security issues like counterterrorism and cyber defense. Its core mission remains to ensure the security of its member countries. Warsaw Pact ​ The Warsaw Pact, formed in 1955, was a military alliance led by the Soviet Union and seven Eastern European countries, created to counter NATO and maintain Soviet control over the region. Its principle of collective defense allowed the USSR to intervene in member states' affairs. The pact played a role in suppressing uprisings in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968). It dissolved in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of communism in Eastern Europe. Marshall Plan ​ The Marshall Plan, launched in 1948, was a U.S. initiative to provide over $13 billion in financial aid to rebuild Western Europe after World War II. Its goals were to stimulate economic recovery, prevent the spread of communism, and strengthen political stability in the region. The plan was successful in aiding Europe’s recovery, fostering long-term economic growth, and solidifying U.S.-European ties, while the Soviet Union rejected it, deepening the Cold War divide. Korean War ​ The Korean War was a conflict that took place from 1950 to 1953 on the Korean Peninsula, primarily between North Korea (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (supported by the United States and other United Nations member countries). Events during the Cold War (Color-coded!) Why was it fought? (Korean War) ​ The Korean War was fought due to the division of Korea after World War II into a communist North and a capitalist South. The North, backed by the Soviets and China, sought to unify Korea under a communist regime, while the South, supported by the U.S. and Western allies, wanted to maintain a democratic government. The U.S. intervened as part of its Cold War policy of containing communism, leading to a conflict that involved both superpowers and their allies. Korean Division (Post-WWII to the Korean War) ​ After Japan's defeat in World War II, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into two occupation zones: the Soviet-controlled North and the American-controlled South. This division created two ideologically opposed states: a communist North and a capitalist South. Ideological Conflict (Cold War relating to the Korean War) ​ The war occurred in the context of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, as each side sought to expand its influence globally. North Korea, backed by the Soviets and China, aimed to unify the peninsula under a communist regime, while South Korea, supported by the U.S. and other Western nations, sought to establish a capitalist, democratic government. North Korean Invasion ​ On June 25, 1950, North Korea, under Kim Il-sung, launched a full-scale invasion of South Korea in an attempt to reunify the country under communist rule. This was perceived as part of a broader effort by communist forces to spread their influence in Asia. U.S. Containment Policy (Korean War) ​ The United States, following the Truman Doctrine, was committed to containing the spread of communism worldwide. The U.S. saw the North Korean invasion as a threat to this policy and intervened to support South Korea. Chinese and Soviet Involvement (Korean War) ​ The Soviet Union supported North Korea with weapons and military advice, while China intervened after U.N. forces (mainly American troops) pushed into North Korea, fearing a U.S. presence near its borders.​ How did it end? (Korean War) ​ The Korean War ended in 1953 with an armistice agreement, halting active fighting but leaving the war technically unresolved. The agreement created a Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) along the 38th parallel, dividing North and South Korea. No formal peace treaty was signed, and tensions have continued between the two countries. Cuban Missile Crisis ​ The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 was a 13-day confrontation between the U.S. and the Soviet Union over Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. The U.S. responded with a blockade and demanded missile removal. The crisis ended when the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey. It marked the closest point to nuclear war and led to improved U.S.-Soviet communication and efforts at arms control.​ What Happened? (Cuban Missile Crisis) ​ The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 began when the Soviet Union secretly deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from the U.S. After U.S. spy planes discovered the missile sites, President John F. Kennedy imposed a naval blockade (quarantine) around Cuba and demanded the missiles' removal. Tensions escalated, bringing the U.S. and the Soviet Union to the brink of nuclear war. After 13 days of intense negotiation, Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba and the secret removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey. This peaceful resolution marked a turning point in Cold War diplomacy, leading to the establishment of a hotline between the two superpowers to prevent future crises. How did it end? (Cuban Missile Crisis) ​ The Cuban Missile Crisis ended peacefully after 13 days of intense negotiations. The Soviet Union, led by Nikita Khrushchev, agreed to remove its nuclear missiles from Cuba in exchange for a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba. Additionally, the U.S. secretly agreed to remove its missiles from Turkey, which bordered the Soviet Union. This deal helped de-escalate tensions, and the crisis was resolved without resorting to military conflict. The event led to improved communication between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, including the establishment of a hotline to prevent future crises. Suez Canal ​ The Suez Canal Crisis (1956) occurred when Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, angering Britain and France, who had economic interests in the canal. In response, Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula, and Britain and France joined the attack. The U.S. opposed the intervention, leading to a ceasefire. Under international pressure, Britain, France, and Israel withdrew, and Egypt retained control of the canal. The crisis marked the decline of British and French influence in the Middle East and the rise of the U.S. and Soviet Union as global powers. Why did it start? (Suez Canal) ​ The Suez Canal Crisis started in 1956 when Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, angering Britain and France, who had economic interests in the canal. Israel also saw Nasser as a threat and joined the military action. The crisis was set against the backdrop of the Cold War, with the U.S. opposing intervention and the Soviet  Union condemning it. The conflict began over control of the canal and regional power struggles. How did it end? (Suez Canal) ​ The Suez Canal Crisis of 1956 ended with Egypt retaining control of the canal after intense international pressure forced Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw their forces. The United Nations intervened with a peacekeeping force, and the crisis marked a decline in British and French global influence. Egyptian President Nasser emerged as a hero in the Arab world, and the event underscored the shifting power dynamics of the Cold War, with the U.S. and Soviet Union playing key roles in resolving the conflict. Unit 3 The Decades (Immigration in Canada)​ Chinese Head Tax ​ The Chinese Head Tax was a discriminatory policy in Canada (1885–1923) aimed at discouraging Chinese immigration. It imposed a steep fee on Chinese immigrants, starting at $50 and increasing to $500. This caused financial hardship and separated families. In 1923, the head tax was replaced by the Chinese Immigration Act, which banned almost all Chinese immigration until 1947. In 2006, the Canadian government formally apologized and offered redress to survivors and their families, acknowledging the racism and harm caused by the policy.​ Komagata Maru ​ The Komagata Maru incident of 1914 involved a ship carrying 376 Indian passengers to Vancouver to challenge Canada’s racist immigration laws, including the Continuous Passage Act. Most passengers were denied entry and forced to remain on board for two months before being escorted out of Canadian waters. Upon returning to India, 19 passengers were killed in a clash with British authorities, and others were arrested. The incident exposed Canada’s discriminatory policies, and formal apologies were issued in 2008 and 2016. It remains a symbol of resistance against racism and exclusion. Vietnamese boat people ​ The Vietnamese boat people were refugees who fled Vietnam after the Vietnam War, escaping political persecution and hardship. Between the late 1970s and 1980s, over 1.6 million people risked dangerous sea journeys, with many dying. Survivors were resettled in countries like the U.S., Canada, and Australia. Canada accepted over 60,000 Vietnamese refugees, becoming a leader in humanitarian response. Their story symbolizes resilience and the struggles of displaced populations. Canada’s Role in the Vietnamese Refugee Crisis ​ Between 1979 and 1980, Canada resettled over 60,000 Vietnamese boat people, refugees fleeing Vietnam after the war. The effort was a landmark humanitarian initiative, with half sponsored by the government and half by private citizens under the new Private Sponsorship of Refugees Program. Public support was widespread, and Canada’s  actions earned the Nansen Refugee Award in 1986. Vietnamese Canadians have since become an integral part of the country, and the sponsorship model has influenced refugee policies globally​ Chilean refugees ​ The Chilean refugees were those who fled Chile after the 1973 military coup that overthrew President Salvador Allende and brought Augusto Pinochet to power. Facing political persecution, many sought asylum in countries like the U.S., Mexico, Argentina, and Canada. Canada accepted over 7,000 Chileans, offering refuge from Pinochet’s brutal regime. After the regime’s fall in 1990, some refugees returned to Chile, while others settled permanently abroad. The Chilean refugee crisis highlighted global responses to political repression and the importance of asylum. Canada’s Role in the Chilean Refugees ​ Canada accepted over 7,000 Chilean refugees after the 1973 military coup in Chile, offering asylum to those fleeing Pinochet's repressive regime. Canada’s response was grounded in its commitment to human rights, and refugees were supported through government and private sponsorship programs. The country helped with settlement, housing, employment, and language training. Canada’s support for Chilean refugees strengthened its reputation as a sanctuary for those escaping political persecution. Ugandan Asian refugees ​ In 1972, Idi Amin expelled about 80,000 Ugandan Asians from Uganda, accusing them of economic exploitation. Canada accepted over 7,000 refugees, offering asylum and resettling them in cities like Toronto and Vancouver. The Ugandan Asian refugees contributed significantly to Canada's economy, particularly in business, and helped shape the country's multicultural identity. Their resettlement marked a significant chapter in Canada’s history of welcoming refugees. ​ Canada’s Role in the Ugandan Asian Refugees ​ Canada accepted approximately 8,000 Ugandan Asian refugees following Idi Amin's expulsion order in 1972. The Canadian government, along with private sponsors, helped refugees with asylum, housing, and settlement, particularly in cities like Toronto and Vancouver. These refugees made significant contributions to Canada’s economy, especially in business, and enriched its cultural diversity. Canada’s response strengthened its reputation as a country committed to humanitarian values and welcoming immigrants. Syrian refugees ​ The Syrian refugee crisis began in 2011 due to the civil war in Syria, displacing over 6.7 million Syrians. Many fled to neighboring countries, while others sought asylum in Europe and North America. Canada played a leading role, in resettling over 60,000 Syrian refugees since 2015, including 25,000 in a highly publicized initiative by Prime  Minister Justin Trudeau. The country’s government and private sponsorship programs helped refugees integrate through support services and language training. Canada's response is viewed as a significant humanitarian effort and a milestone in its refugee resettlement history. Canada’s Role in the Syrian Refugees ​ Canada has resettled over 100,000 Syrian refugees since 2015, making it one of the leading countries in accepting Syrians fleeing conflict. The initial commitment was to resettle 25,000 Syrian refugees by February 2016, which was successfully achieved. Since then, Canada has continued to accept Syrian refugees through both government-assisted and private sponsorship programs. As of 2024, the total number of Syrian refugees resettled in Canada includes both government-assisted and privately sponsored individuals. These refugees have contributed significantly to Canadian society, enriching its cultural diversity and strengthening its economy.​ Immigration Act of 1919 ​ The Immigration Act of 1919 aimed to regulate immigration in post-World War I Canada. It included restrictions targeting immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe, Asia, and other regions deemed undesirable. The continuous journey provision effectively limited immigration from India and other non-European countries. The Act was designed to control the flow of laborers to support Canada's economic recovery while favoring European immigrants. It reinforced exclusionary policies and laid the foundation for future immigration laws. Immigration Act of 1952 ​ The Immigration Act of 1952 continued Canada’s preference for European immigrants and maintained racial and ethnic biases, limiting immigration from non-European countries, including Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean. It gave the Minister of Immigration broad discretionary powers to admit or reject applicants. The Act focused on economic and labor needs post-World War II but restricted family reunification and maintained discriminatory practices. The Act was eventually replaced in 1967 with a more inclusive points-based system, which helped dismantle these racial barriers. Immigration Act of 1967 “continuous journey regulation” ​ The Continuous Journey Regulation, part of Canada’s Immigration Act of 1910, required immigrants to travel directly from their country of origin to Canada, without stopping in any other country. This regulation primarily targeted immigrants from India and other non-European nations, as many ships from these regions made stops en route. It was a way to restrict non-European immigration, and its most notable incident was the Komagata Maru in 1914. The regulation was abolished in 1967 when Canada introduced a points-based immigration system, marking a shift toward a more inclusive and merit-based immigration policy. Unit 3 The Decades (Prime Ministers of Canada over the decades and Color-coded!)​ ​ Louis St.Laurent​ John Diefenbaker​ Lester Pearson​ Pierre Elliot Trudeau ​ Louis St.Laurent ​ Louis St. Laurent was the 12th Prime Minister of Canada (1948–1957). He led the country through the post-World War II era, overseeing economic recovery and modernization. St. Laurent played a key role in Canada's involvement in NATO and the United Nations, while strengthening trade ties, particularly with the U.S. He introduced social reforms, expanded infrastructure, and supported the creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway. His leadership helped define Canada’s post-war identity. St. Laurent retired in 1957, succeeded by John Diefenbaker, and is remembered for his diplomatic skills and contributions to Canada's development. ​ TransCanada Highway (Louis St.Laurent) ​ The TransCanada Highway was envisioned by Louis St. Laurent in 1949 as a national project to connect Canada from coast to coast. It aimed to improve transportation, foster national unity, and support economic development. The federal government provided funding, and provincial governments were involved in its construction. The highway was completed in 1962 and officially opened in 1964. It became a key infrastructure project that improved trade, travel, and communication across Canada, leaving a lasting legacy of connectivity and modernization. TransCanada Pipeline (Louis St.Laurent) ​ The TransCanada Pipeline, supported by Louis St. Laurent in the 1950s, was a major infrastructure project to transport natural gas from Western Canada to Eastern Canada and the United States. It aimed to enhance energy security, economic growth, and national unity. Construction began in 1956, and by 1958, the pipeline was completed. It played a crucial role in connecting Canada’s regions, boosting the energy sector, and establishing a foundation for future energy infrastructure projects. St.Lawrence Seaway (Louis St.Laurent) ​ The St. Lawrence Seaway, initiated under Louis St. Laurent’s leadership, connects the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. Completed in 1959, it improved trade by allowing large ships to transport goods, benefiting both Canada and the U.S. The project required cooperation between the two countries, with Canada managing the construction of its section. The Seaway spurred economic growth, boosted ports like Montreal, and provided strategic military access to the Great Lakes. It remains a key infrastructure project in Canada’s economy. Newfoundland joining Confederation (Louis St.Laurent) ​ Newfoundland joined the Confederation in 1949, with Louis St. Laurent playing a key role in the process. After facing economic difficulties, Newfoundland held a referendum in 1948, where 52.3% voted to join Canada. St. Laurent’s government supported the move, offering economic assistance and political stability. On March 31, 1949, Newfoundland became Canada’s 10th province, marking the end of British colonial rule and strengthening Canada’s unity.​ John Diefenbaker ​ John Diefenbaker was the 13th Prime Minister of Canada (1957–1963), known for his leadership during a time of significant change. He introduced the Canadian Bill of Rights in 1960 and extended voting rights to Indigenous Canadians in 1960. Diefenbaker's government focused on Canadian sovereignty, particularly in foreign policy, and opposed nuclear weapons on Canadian soil. Despite economic challenges and party divisions, he left a lasting impact on Canada's political landscape. After losing the 1963 election, he continued to influence Canadian politics and remains a significant figure in the country's history.​ Bill of Rights (John Diefenbaker) ​ The Canadian Bill of Rights, introduced by John Diefenbaker in 1960, was the first federal law to protect fundamental human rights in Canada. It safeguarded rights such as freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and the right to life, liberty, and security. However, it applied only to federal laws and could be overridden by future legislation. While limited in scope, the Bill of Rights paved the way for the later Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982, which provided stronger and more comprehensive protections. Appointed first Indigenous senator (John Diefenbaker) ​ In 1958, John Diefenbaker appointed James Gladstone, a member of the Blood Tribe in Alberta, as the first Indigenous senator in Canadian history. This historic appointment marked a significant step in promoting Indigenous representation in Canadian politics and reflected Diefenbaker’s commitment to Indigenous rights and inclusion.​ First Female cabinet minister (John Diefenbaker) ​ In 1957, John Diefenbaker appointed Thelma Parker as Canada’s first female cabinet minister, naming her Secretary of State for Canada. This historic appointment broke gender barriers in Canadian politics and highlighted Diefenbaker’s commitment to gender equality and women’s leadership. It paved the way for greater female representation in politics. Lester Pearson ​ Lester B. Pearson, Prime Minister of Canada from 1963 to 1968, is remembered for his significant contributions to both international diplomacy and domestic reforms. He won  the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his role in resolving the Suez Crisis and promoting peacekeeping. Domestically, he introduced universal healthcare (Medicare), the Canada Pension Plan, and the Canadian flag. Pearson's leadership shaped modern Canada, emphasizing peacekeeping, social welfare, and multilateral diplomacy. His legacy continues to influence Canada’s identity and global standing.​ The Canadian Flag (Lester Pearson) ​ The Canadian flag, introduced on February 15, 1965, under Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson, features a red maple leaf at its center with two red vertical bands. The design symbolizes Canada's ties to both Britain and France, as well as its natural heritage. The flag was a key step in affirming Canada's unique identity and independence.​ Flag and the Auto Pact (Lester Pearson) ​ Under Lester B. Pearson, Canada adopted the Maple Leaf flag in 1965, symbolizing the country’s unity and independence. Pearson also oversaw the signing of the Auto Pact in 1965, a trade agreement with the United States that boosted Canada's automotive industry by allowing the free trade of automobile parts and vehicles. These events significantly shaped Canada's identity and economy. UN Peacekeepers (Lester Pearson) ​ Lester B. Pearson played a key role in establishing UN peacekeepers during the Suez Crisis of 1956, proposing a UN peacekeeping force to resolve the conflict. For his efforts, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957. Pearson’s leadership established Canada as a prominent advocate for peacekeeping and international diplomacy, leaving a lasting legacy in global conflict resolution. Expo ‘67 (Lester Pearson) ​ Expo 67, held in Montreal during Lester B. Pearson's leadership, was a major event celebrating Canada's 100th anniversary. It showcased Canada’s cultural diversity, technological advancements, and modernity to the world, boosting the country's international reputation. The event had a lasting impact on Montreal and Canada, promoting economic growth and helping shape Canada's modern identity. Pierre Elliot Trudeau ​ Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1919–2000) was the 15th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from 1968 to 1979 and again from 1980 to 1984. Known for his progressive leadership, he introduced significant policies, including the Official Languages Act (promoting bilingualism), the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982), and multiculturalism. His focus on national unity and federalism shaped modern Canada, especially during the Quebec separatist movement. Trudeau's legacy is marked by his contributions to Canadian identity, rights, and social diversity, making him one of Canada's most influential leaders.​ What were the components of the “Just Society”?  ​ The "Just Society" is a vision of a fair and inclusive society that promotes equality and fairness for all individuals, ensures the protection of human rights, and addresses issues like poverty and inequality. It encourages civic participation and democratic engagement, fosters solidarity and cooperation for the common good, upholds the rule of law, and emphasizes environmental stewardship for a sustainable future. The focus is on fairness, dignity, and the well-being of all citizens. Unit 3 The Decades (French and English Relations) Maurice Duplessis ​ Maurice Duplessis was Premier of Quebec from 1936-1939 and 1944-1959, leading the Union Nationale party. His conservative, authoritarian leadership focused on economic development, traditional values, and provincial autonomy. His rule, known as the "Great Darkness," involved censorship and suppression of dissent. While praised for economic growth, Duplessis faced criticism for his repressive tactics and limited progress in healthcare and education. His legacy is significant in Quebec's political history. the Great Darkness ​ The "Great Darkness" (1944-1959) under Maurice Duplessis was a period of authoritarian rule in Quebec, characterized by censorship, political repression, and the use of patronage to maintain control. Duplessis limited the expansion of public healthcare and education, opposed union movements, and resisted progressive social reforms. His government promoted traditional Catholic values and provincial autonomy while strengthening Quebec’s economy through resource exploitation. However, his repressive tactics and resistance to change drew criticism for hindering social progress and suppressing political dissent. Jean Lesage ​ Jean Lesage was the Premier of Quebec from 1960 to 1966 and a key figure in the Quiet Revolution. As a Liberal, he modernized Quebec by reducing the Catholic Church's influence and implementing reforms in education, healthcare, and the economy. He nationalized hydroelectric power through Hydro-Québec and promoted secularism and provincial control over resources. Lesage's leadership was crucial in shaping modern Quebec and reducing the power of traditional institutions. the Quiet Revolution ​ The Quiet Revolution (1960-1966) was a period of rapid social, cultural, and political change in Quebec, primarily under Premier Jean Lesage. It marked a shift from traditional, conservative values to more progressive, secular policies. The Catholic Church's influence was reduced, and the government took a more active role in areas like education, healthcare, and the economy. Key reforms included the nationalization of hydroelectric power (creating Hydro-Québec), expanding social programs, and promoting secularism. The Quiet Revolution played a crucial role in the development of Quebec's modern identity and the rise of Quebec nationalism. Maîtres Chez Nous ​ "Maîtres chez nous" (Masters in Our Own House) was a slogan from the Quiet Revolution, representing Quebec's push for greater autonomy and control over its economy, culture, and politics. Associated with Premier Jean Lesage, it symbolized efforts to reduce outside influence, nationalize industries like Hydro-Québec, and promote secularism and social reform, shaping Quebec's modern identity and nationalism. Rene Levesque ​ René Lévesque was a key Quebec politician and founder of the Parti Québécois, serving as Premier from 1976 to 1985. He championed Quebec’s sovereignty movement, leading a 1980 referendum on independence, which was defeated. Lévesque is remembered for modernizing Quebec’s economy, advocating for its independence, and shaping Quebec's assertive identity. Parti Quebecois ​ The Parti Québécois (PQ) is a political party in Quebec founded in 1968 by René Lévesque. It advocates for Quebec's independence from Canada and the promotion of Quebec's francophone culture. The party has historically played a central role in the sovereignty movement, seeking to achieve independence through referendums. The PQ has also been involved in social and economic reforms, including the modernization of Quebec's welfare state. It governed Quebec from 1976 to 1985 and again from 1994 to 2003, with sovereignty as a key part of its platform. Bill 101 ​ Bill 101, passed in 1977 under Premier René Lévesque, made French the official language of Quebec. It imposed regulations on French usage in government, education, and business, including French signage and school instruction. The bill aimed to protect Quebec’s francophone identity and played a key role in the sovereignty movement. 1980 Referendum ​ The 1980 Quebec referendum was a vote on whether Quebec should pursue sovereignty and negotiate a new relationship with Canada. Led by Premier René Lévesque and the Parti Québécois, the "Yes" campaign advocated for Quebec's independence, while the "No" campaign, supported by federalists, opposed separation. The referendum was ultimately rejected, with 60% voting against sovereignty, but it significantly raised awareness of Quebec nationalism and its aspirations for greater autonomy. FLQ Crisis ​ The FLQ Crisis (1970) was a period of political violence in Quebec, involving the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), a separatist group advocating for Quebec's independence. The FLQ carried out bombings and kidnappings, most notably the  kidnapping of British diplomat James Cross and Quebec Minister Pierre Laporte. The Canadian government, led by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, responded by invoking the War Measures Act, which suspended civil liberties and allowed for widespread arrests. The crisis ended with the release of Cross and the death of Laporte, and it highlighted tensions over Quebec's sovereignty movement. War Measures Act ​ The War Measures Act was a law passed by the Canadian government that granted extraordinary powers during times of national crisis. It was invoked during the FLQ Crisis in 1970 by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, suspending civil liberties, allowing for the arrest and detention of individuals without trial, and giving the military authority to maintain order. The Act was controversial for its suspension of rights, but it was used to address the threat posed by the FLQ's acts of violence. It was later replaced by the Emergencies Act in 1988. Elijah Harper ​ Elijah Harper was a Canadian Indigenous leader and politician, best known for his role in the 1990 defeat of the Meech Lake Accord. As a member of the Manitoba legislature, Harper blocked the Accord by refusing to give his consent, citing the lack of Indigenous representation in the negotiations. His actions brought attention to the need for Indigenous inclusion in constitutional discussions and played a pivotal role in shaping Canadian political history. Harper was also an advocate for Indigenous rights and served in various leadership roles throughout his career. Meech Lake Accord ​ The Meech Lake Accord was a series of constitutional amendments proposed in 1987 to bring Quebec into the 1982 Canadian Constitution. It sought to address Quebec’s concerns by recognizing it as a "distinct society" and granting provinces more control over immigration and appointments to the Supreme Court. However, the Accord failed to gain approval due to opposition from several provinces and Indigenous groups, notably Elijah Harper, who blocked it in Manitoba's legislature. The failure of the Meech Lake Accord deepened divisions in Canada, particularly between Quebec and the rest of the country. Charlottetown Accord ​ The Charlottetown Accord, proposed in 1992, was another attempt to amend the Canadian Constitution, building on the failed Meech Lake Accord. It aimed to address issues of national unity, recognizing Quebec as a distinct society, and included provisions for Indigenous self-government, Senate reform, and increased provincial powers. However, it was rejected in a national referendum, with a majority of Canadians voting against it, particularly in Quebec and the rest of Canada. The failure of the Charlottetown Accord marked another setback in efforts to resolve constitutional issues and address Quebec's demands for greater autonomy. Unit 3 The Decades (Indigenous Issues) Residential Schools ​ Residential schools in Canada were government-funded, church-run institutions designed to assimilate Indigenous children. Operating from the 19th century until the late 20th century, they aimed to erase Indigenous cultures and languages, often through abuse and neglect. The legacy of these schools has caused lasting trauma in Indigenous communities. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission investigated this history, leading to a formal apology and calls for reparations. Sixties Scoop ​ The Sixties Scoop refers to the mass removal of Indigenous children from their families in Canada between the 1960s and 1980s. These children were placed in foster homes or adopted, often by non-Indigenous families, as part of a government policy to assimilate them into mainstream Canadian society. Many children were taken without consent, leading to trauma, loss of cultural identity, and disconnection from their communities. The Sixties Scoop has had long-lasting effects on Indigenous families, and legal actions and apologies have been made in recent years for the harm caused. White Paper ​ The 1969 White Paper on Indian Policy was a Canadian government proposal to eliminate special legal distinctions for Indigenous peoples, such as the Indian Act, and promote integration into mainstream society. It suggested ending "Indian" status and transferring reserve land to provincial control. The proposal was strongly opposed by Indigenous communities, who viewed it as an attack on their identity and rights. In response, they published the "Red Paper." Due to backlash, the government abandoned the White Paper in 1971, which helped spark the Indigenous rights movement and led to the recognition of Indigenous rights in the 1982 Canadian Constitution. Red Paper ​ The Red Paper (1970) was a response to the Canadian government's 1969 White Paper. Published by the Indian Chiefs of Canada, it rejected the White Paper's proposals to eliminate Indigenous legal status and rights. Instead, it called for the recognition of Indigenous self-governance, land rights, and cultural preservation, advocating for a nation-to-nation relationship with the government. The Red Paper played a key role in advancing the Indigenous rights movement in Canada. 1990 Oka Crisis ​ The 1990 Oka Crisis was a standoff between the Mohawk people and the Canadian government over a proposed golf course expansion in Oka, Quebec, on land the Mohawks considered sacred. When the Mohawks set up barricades to block construction, tensions escalated, and a police officer was killed. The Canadian military intervened, leading to a 78-day standoff. The crisis ended with a negotiated settlement and highlighted issues of Indigenous land rights and sovereignty in Canada.