Qualitative Research PDF

Qualitative Research Psychologists study the behaviour and mental processes of both humans and animals, and the main purpose of this research is to help us understand people and to improve the quality of human lives. Qualitative Research Qualitative research in psychology is about the study of meaning. The focus in qualitative psychology is on people as meaning-makers, and on describing and understanding the ways in which we experience and interpret our world (Kings & Brooks, 2017). Qualitative research produces descriptive data that comes in the form of people’s own written or spoken words or observable behaviour. The key assumption of qualitative research is that reality is constructed by individuals interacting with their social worlds (Smith, 2003). Aims and features of qualitative research Qualitative research aims to understand the meaning of human action (Schwandt, 2001), and asks open ended questions about phenomena as they occur in context rather than setting out to test predetermined hypotheses. Qualitative research focuses on meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things (Howard & Berg, 2016). Qualitative researchers tend to be concerned with meaning. That is, they are interested in how people make sense of the world and how they experience events. Qualitative methods emphasise the perspective of the individual and their individuality (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). They aim to understand ‘what it is like’ to experience particular conditions and how people manage certain situations. They tend to be interested in the meanings attributed to events by the research participants themselves. Qualitative researchers are concerned with the quality and texture of experience The objective of qualitative research is to describe and possibly explain events and experiences. Qualitative reports contain rich descriptions and at times thick descriptions that contain colorful detail and unique features or characters. Qualitative researchers study people in their own territory, within naturally occurring settings Individuals are studied as authors, creative, compassionate beings and not as objects of study. Prediction of outcomes is not a meaningful goal for qualitative researchers (Willig, 2013). According to Ashworth (2003) qualitative research in psychology takes into account the following: 1. The First person perspective Propositions about psychological events can be stated only in the third person from the viewpoint of the observer rather than that of the actor themselves. Perceptual approach – Considers the viewpoint of the research participant. Idiography- Allows for individual differences Meaning – people’s own accounts of their experience are regarded as understandable and meaningful in their own terms Importance of qualitative research Real world relevance Key Concepts Ontology Ontology is the starting point of all research. It is concerned with the nature of the world or reality (Willig, 2008). Ontology asks the question, ‘What is there to know?’ Qualitative researchers embrace the idea of multiple realities. Epistemology Epistemology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge (Willig, 2013). It attempts to answer two questions 1. How can we know 2. What can we know Methodology That is the general approach to studying a research topic. Methodology refers to the how of the research? Methods Techniques or procedures used to collect and analyse data (Blaikie, 2000). The method(s) chosen for a research project are inextricably linked to the research questions posed. Axiological issues Are concerned with personal values, morals and ethics of the researcher (Hart, 2018) According to the axiological assumption, all researchers bring values to a study, but qualitative researchers make explicit those values. Sampling for Qualitative Research Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population which will take part in a research study. Researchers select samples to learn more about populations of interest (Privitera, 2015) A sampling frame is an exhaustive list of all members of the population from which a sample can be drawn. A population is a collection of all people being described or measured by a sample. Sample size depends on what wants to be known, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with the available time and resources. Sampling in qualitative research as being relatively limited, based on saturation, not representative, the size not statistically determined and involving low cost and less time (Sarantakos, 2000). Non probability sampling is used almost without exception. The overall purpose of the use of non probability sampling techniques in qualitative research is to collect the richest data. Rich data ideally means a wide range of diverse range of information collected over a relatively prolonged period of time (Strydom & Delport, 2011). Types of non probability sampling techniques The odds of selecting a particular individual are not known because the researcher does not know the population size or the members of the population (Gravetter & Farzano, 2003). Denzin and Lincoln (2002) point out that qualitative researchers seek out individuals, groups or settings where specific processes being studied are likely to occur. A process of constant comparison between individuals and groups being studied is essential since the researcher is in pursuit of understanding all aspects of his or her research topic Purposive sampling Purposive sampling is a sampling procedure in which participants are selected from the target population on the basis of their fit with the purposes of the study and specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants are chosen because they illustrate some features or processes that are of interest for a particular study. Is based entirely on the judgement of a researcher, in that a sample is composed of elements that contain the most characteristic, or typical attributes of the population that serve the purpose of the study best. Purposive sampling provides more control over who is selected to be included in a sample. Also known as judgemental sampling. Theoretical sampling Sampling is guided by the need to develop theoretical arguments. The sample is chosen to assist the researcher to understand the situation under study and to highlight the researcher’s emerging theory (Neuman, 2003). Theoretical sampling helps to define categories, to identify the contexts in which they are relevant, to specify the conditions under which they come up or are maintained, and to discover their consequences (Denzin & Lincoln ,2000). The advantage is that the researcher targets people who are likely to give great insight, the cost of data collection is low. The important disadvantage is that you may not end up talking to people that can contradict the theory under study. Deviant case sampling Also referred to as extreme case sampling Researcher selects participants that differ from the dominant pattern or characteristics of other participants where the range of experience of a particular social phenomenon are already known (Morris, 2006). Neuman (2003) states that the goal of deviant case sampling is to locate a collection of special, unusual, different or peculiar participants that are not representative of the whole. The cases are selected because they are enlightening, unusual, enlightening or troublesome and the researcher hopes to learn more about the phenomenon by studying cases that fall outside the general pattern (Strydom & Delport, 2011). Focusing on negative or problematic case or group is especially important in qualitative research. Sequential sampling Gathers participants and data until the amount of new information or the diversity of cases is completed, that is until saturation point is reached (Strydom & Delport, 2011). This requires the researcher to continuously evaluate all the collected data in order to know when this occurs. Snowball sampling Normally used when there is limited access to appropriate participants for the intended study. Has particular application value in qualitative research, since it directed at the identification of hard to reach individuals (Strydom & Delport, 2011). Involves approaching a single participant that is involved in the phenomenon to be investigated. Information is then sought from this person that enables location of other members of that population. The researcher should carry on selecting participants until no one else with those specific characteristics can be found or until data saturation has taken place. Key informant sampling Sampling relies on the people in the community identified as experts in the particular field of interest. The strategy is to interview these identified experts systematically after they have been identified. The issue of probability comes into play because there cannot be certainty whether the identified participants actually are the total spectrum of possible participants. Volunteer sampling Participants offer to take part in your study. Silverman (2000) states that volunteer sampling works well when the respondents are known to one another or are at least aware of one another and can encourage one another to become involved in the study. This category of volunteers may, however have a specific opinion about the issue being studied, and may impress their views upon all concerned. However volunteers may not necessarily be used because merely nobody comes forward or because the persons who do volunteer may not be suitable. Volunteers facilitate the task of the researcher and accelerate the process. Mark (1996) however warns that the researcher must bear in mind that those who join the project of their own volition are normally more motivated, better trained, better skilled and possess more specific psychosocial characteristics than those who do not apply voluntarily. The researcher should therefore check the motives of the volunteers with regard to the research objectives , thus guarding against possible hidden agendas. Qualitative Data Collection Techniques Data Collection techniques Include observation, interviews, focus group discussions and visual methods. Interviews are the most common data collection technique in qualitative research (Forrester, 2010). Observation Observation may be used as the only data gathering technique or it can be used alongside other techniques. The major purpose of observational research is to provide clear and accurate descriptions of behavior (Goodwin & Goodwin, 2017). There are two popular observation techniques namely: naturalistic observation and participant observation. Naturalistic observation Also known as simple observation or non participant observation. Researchers study their participants from ‘outside’. There is no direct interaction with one’s participants. The researcher’s position is clearly defined and different from that of the participants (Sarantakos,2005). Naturalistic observation has the following weaknesses People may alter their behaviour, become uneasy or stop activities altogether when they are aware that they are being observed. Participant observation Can be used to avoid interference with the observed person. Observers hide the real purpose of their presence by becoming an integral part of the group, and observations are made as a member of the group (Brekwell, 2012). Becoming an insider allows a deeper insight into the research problem since one enjoys the confidence of participants and shares their experiences without disturbing their behaviour. The researcher may become emotionally engaged and therefore lose detachment from people and events. Inaccurate information may be recorded, since notes are taken down secretly or from memory. Interviews Qualitative interviewing characteristically involves questions and probes by the interviewer designed to encourage the interviewee to talk freely and extensively about the topic(s) defined by the researcher (Howitt, 2013). A good qualitative interviewer needs highly developed listening skills, on- the-spot analytic skills, satisfactory interpersonal skills and experience. Unstructured interviews They are characterised by their lack of a predetermined interview schedule (Landridge, 2004. They are usually explorative and most useful where little is known about the topic. They are appropriate for certain theoretical perspectives such as ethnography. Semi structured interviews The most widely used data collection technique in qualitative research in psychology (Willig, 2013). The researcher has a set of questions on an interview schedule, but the interview will be guided by the schedule rather than dictated by it (Smith & Osborn, 2003). The interviewer is free to probe interesting areas that arise. The respondent is perceived as the experiential expert on the subject and should therefore be allowed maximum opportunity to tell their own story. Semi structured interviews facilitate rapport/empathy, they allow greater flexibility of coverage and allow the interviewer to go into novel areas and they tend to produce richer data. This form of interviewing reduces the control the investigator has over the situation, takes longer to carry out and is harder to analyse. Constructing the interview schedule Constructing the schedule itself involves the following; 1. Thinking about the broad range of issues the interview has to cover 2. Arranging the topics in the most appropriate sequence. 3. Thinking of appropriate questions related to each area in order to address the issues the researcher is interested in. 4. Thinking about the probes and prompts which could follow from the answers given to some of the questions A probe is a follow up question that encourages a participant to expand on an initial answer in order to obtain more depth in their response. Constructing the questions The respondent should be encouraged to speak about the topic freely. At times initial questions will be insufficient to elicit a satisfactory response. The researcher has to construct probes that are framed more explicitly. The interview The researcher has to make sure that the interview can proceed without interruption as possible. It is better and fruitful to conduct the interview with the respondent alone. Interviewing techniques Try not to rush in too quickly (Smith & Osborn, 2007). It is ideal to begin with general questions then move on to personal matters when rapport has been established. Rapport is a key ingredient in qualitative research interviews (Kings & Horrocks, 2010), it is essentially about trust, enabling the participant to open up to the interviewer. Use minimal probes, e.g can you tell me more about that or how did you feel about that? Ask one question at a time. The interviewer needs to find a right balance between maintaining control of the interview and where it is, allowing the interviewee space to redefine the topic under investigation and thus to generate novel insights for the researcher. The interviewer also needs to monitor the effect of the interview on the respondent. The researcher also needs to be aware of linguistic variability. Focus Groups A FG is a small number of people in an informal group discussion focused on particular topics or set of issues (Wilkinson, 2015). A focus group is a collective interview, directed by the researcher (moderator), which exploits the interactive potential of the situation in order to generate rich data (Howitt, 2013). The researcher takes on the role of a moderator whose task is to introduce the group members to another, to introduce the focus of the group and to steer the issues raised by others (Willig, 2013). Important characteristics of a moderator are avoiding expressing personal opinions and avoiding appearing to be judgemental (Gibbs, 1997) The discussion is based around a series of questions known as the focus group schedule (Wilkinson, 2015). The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion and first hand insights into the respondents’ behaviour, attitudes, language. FGDs do not allow all individuals to express themselves freely and this is likely to increase the effects of social desirability. FGs are best reported in ways which preserve the participants own words e.g by using illustrative quotations. Ethical issues Informed consent, ethical clearances and avoiding physical and psychological harm to participants in the form of stress and anxiety. Preparing Materials The focus group schedule should engage the participants, use appropriate vocabulary, the questions should flow logically. It should also provide the opportunity for a variety of viewpoints to be expressed, allow participants to raise points which may not have occurred to the researcher. Write out the introduction to the session (include a recap of the study, the procedure to be followed and the ground rules for the focus group) and the closing comments (include a summary of the session, any necessary debriefing and a reiteration of thanks). Selecting participants In order to optimise the choice of group participants, the researcher must ask themself what sort of participants will yield the most satisfactory information relevant to your research question. They should be chosen in order to maximise the productivity of the discussion (Howitt & Cramer, 2011). Depending on the research question, participants may be heterogeneous or homogeneous. Focus group members should generally be varied in terms of obvious factors. Always over recruit participants by about 50%. Choosing the venue The location should set the tone of the research as professional and where possible on neutral ground. Where there is no choice of venue, the group’s own territory might be ideal. Where there is choice, the main consideration is balancing participant comfort , convenience and a good recording environment. Participants should be seated in a circle either in easy chairs or around a table. Also known as idiographic research (Leedy & Omrod, 2014) A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single person or a group (Western, 1999). A case study is not a research method but a an approach to the study of singular entities, which may involve the use of a wide range of diverse methods of data collection and analysis (Willig, 2013). The name case study is used because the focus of study (e.g., the individual, group, organization, or event) is called a “case” (Privitera, 2015). Case studies focus on a particular unit of analysis, the case. Units of analysis are the units of observation: things that are examined in order to study the chosen topic (Hart, 2018). Case studies involve an in-depth, intensive and sharply focused exploration of such an occurrence. Case study method enables a researcher to closely examine the data within a specific context. Defining features of case study research These include an idiographic perspective, attention to contextual detail, triangulation, a temporal element and a concern with theory (Willig, 2013). Idiographic perspective Researchers are concerned with the particular rather than the general. The aim is to understand an individual case in its particularity. Attention to contextual detail Case study research takes a holistic approach, it considers the case in its context. The researcher pays attention to the ways in which the various dimensions of the case relate or interact with its environment. Cases cannot be considered in isolation. Triangulation Case studies integrate information from diverse sources to gain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This may involve the use of a range of data collection and analysis techniques within the framework of one case study. Triangulation enriches case study research because it allows the researcher to approach the case from a number of different perspectives. Temporal Element Case studies involve an investigation of occurrences over a period of time. A focus on change and development is an important feature of case studies (Willig, 2013). Concern with theory Case studies facilitate theory generation. The detailed exploration of a particular case can generate insights into social or psychological processes, which in turn can give rise to theoretical formulations. Case studies can also be used to clarify or extend theories (Willig, 2013). Types of case studies There are a number of different designs each of which allow the researcher to address different sort of questions in relation to the case under investigation. These include, illustrative, exploratory and collective (Privitera, 2015). Illustrative case studies Investigates rare or unknown cases (Privitera, 2015). Used to understand a particular case Often lead to the introduction of a common language for describing the phenomenon being studied. Exploratory case study A preliminary or pilot study conducted prior to main research study. The case is utilised to better understand a more general phenomenon Explores or provides important information pertaining to the selection of research questions, measurements and potential limitations that may arise during the course of the main study. Collective case study Also known as multiple case studies (Leedy & Omrod, 2016). Compares the individual analysis of many related cases. Theoretical formulations are developed and refined on the basis of the comparative analysis of a series of cases. Selection of methods of data collection and analysis The research methods to be used should be selected in light of the research question that motivated the study. Data can be analysed in a variety of ways including phenomenological analysis and grounded theory. As part of an analysis, a case study typically includes a case history. A case history is an in-depth description of the history and background of the individual, group, or organization observed (Privitera, 2015). It includes age, family history, and what makes the case interesting to the researcher. Writing up The case study report should include information about the participant(s), a clear and detailed account of the methods used to collect and analyse the data and a discussion and implication of the findings. The report should also identify the purpose of the study and its terms of reference Ethics Case study research needs to be particularly sensitive to issues around confidentiality and anonymity since it is concerned with the details of individual participants’ life events. Agreements should be reached with the participants about the limits of accessibility to records, documents and other materials prior to data collection. Phenomenology Phenomenology Phenomenology is both a branch of philosophy and a family of research methods concerned with exploring and understanding human experience (Langdridge, 2007). Phenomenology is the systematic study of conscious experiences (Howitt, 2013). It studies the participants’ perspectives of their world; attempts to describe in detail the content and structure of the subjects’ consciousness, to grasp the qualitative diversity of their experiences and to explicate their essential meanings (Kvale, 1996). Phenomenological methods aim to get a better understanding of the nature and quality of the phenomena as they present themselves. Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for- granted assumptions and usual ways of perceiving. There are two major approaches to phenomenological research in psychology, descriptive and interpretative. Descriptive phenomenology Descriptive phenomenologists believe that it is possible to minimise interpretation and focus on that which lies before one in phenomenological purity (Willig, 2014). The aim of the researcher is to describe as accurately as possible the phenomenon, refraining from any pre-given framework, but remaining true to the facts. Researchers are required to adopt a phenomenological attitude in which they bracket all past knowledge about the phenomenon under investigation. Bracketing refers to the suspension of preconceived notions or personal experiences that may unduly influence what the researcher ‘hears’ the participants saying (Leedy & Omrod, 2014). The focus of research is the phenomenon as it is experienced by the research participant. Interpretative phenomenology Interpretative phenomenology does not separate description and interpretation. IPA is informed by phenomenology, in the sense that it is concerned with how experiences appear to individuals, how individuals perceive and talk about objects and events (Smith et al., 2009). Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis According to Smith, Larkin and Flowers (2009, pg 1) interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is ‘committed to the examination of how people make sense of their major life experiences’. The aim of IPA is to explore in detail how participants make sense of their personal and social world (Smith and Osborn, 2003). It aims to explain people’s accounts of their experiences in psychological terms. IPA accepts that it is difficult to gain direct access to research participants’ life worlds. IPA is about the experiences of individuals working from the basic assumption that the individual who experiences something is the expert about their experiences (Howitt, 2013). The main currency for an IPA study is the meaning particular experiences, events, states hold for participants. IPA emphasises that the research is a dynamic process and the researcher plays an active role (Willig, 2013). The researcher strives to get an insider perspective but one cannot do this directly or completely. Access depends on and is complicated by the researcher’s own conceptions. IPA recognises that it is difficult not to implicate the researcher’s own view of the world as well as the nature of the interaction between researcher and participant. The phenomenological analysis produced by the researcher is always an interpretation of the participant’s experience (Howitt, 2013). The analyst adds more to the interpretation (Howitt, 2013). IPA is based on the assumption that people are self-interpreting beings (Taylor, 1985). IPA assumes a relationship between people’s talk, their thinking and emotional state (Chapman & Smith, 2002). When to use IPA IPA is about people’s major or significant experiences (Howitt, 2013). IPA is not a finely tuned analysis of how people talk about their experiences. It is a ‘what they say’ rather than ‘how they say it’ method. The researcher’s role in an IPA Study IPA acknowledges that any insights gained from the analysis of a text are necessarily the product of interpretation (Willig, 2013). The researcher listens carefully and must be alert for cues in the participants’ expressions, questions and occasional sidetracks. The researcher has to engage in interpretative acting in order for IPA’s aim to be achieved. The analysis is both phenomenological and interpretative. The researcher has to assume an insider perspective that is to stand in the shoes of the participants and at the same time has to engage in an interpretative relationship with the data (Aubeeluck, 1985). However, access to the participants’ experiences depends on the researcher’s own conceptions. IPA requires a reflexive attitude from the researcher. Doing IPA The analysis requires a flexible data collection instrument (Smith and Osborn, 2003). Semi structured interviews are the most widely used data collection technique (Howitt, 2013; Willig, 2013). It is extremely important that questions posed to the participant be open ended and non directive (Willig, 2013). Analysis IPA begins by analysing individual cases. The first stage of analysis involves reading and re reading the of the interview transcript (Smith & Osborn, 2003). The researcher produces wide ranging and unfocused notes that reflect initial thoughts and observations. At this point the researcher familiarises themself with the interview transcript. The left hand margin is used to annotate what is interesting or significant about the participants responses. Each reading has the potential to reveal new insights. Notes produced at this stage are a way of documenting the ideas that come up, upon the researcher’s initial encounter with the text. The second stage involves the identification and labeling of emergent themes (Willig, 2013). The right hand margin is used to document the emerging theme titles. Theme titles are conceptual and they should capture something about the essential quality of what is represented by the text. The themes move the response to a slightly higher level of abstraction and may invoke more psychological terminology. (Smith & Osborn, 2003). Connecting the themes The third stage involves an attempt to introduce structure into the analysis. The emergent themes are listed on a sheet of paper and one looks for connections between them. Some of the themes form natural clusters of concepts that share meanings or references and some emerge as superordinate concepts. E.g themes such as childhood memories, going to school and relationship with mother could form a childhood cluster. Smith et al (2009) identified a number of ways of looking for connections between emergent themes. These include 1. abstraction the grouping of like concepts , thus creating a higher level theme. 2. Subsumption realising that an emergent theme can subsume other emergent themes. 3. Polarisation ,identifying themes which constitute opposite ends of a continuum. 4. Numeration, noting the frequency with which emergent themes appear. 5. Function, identifying the functions of the emergent themes within the account. Production of a summary table The fourth stage involves the production of a summary table of the structured themes. Clusters are given names and these names represent the superordinate theme. The summary table should only include those themes that capture something about the quality of the participant’s experience of the phenomenon under investigation. The summary table needs to include cluster labels together with their subordinate theme labels and references to where relevant extracts may be found in the interview transcript. Continuing the analysis with other cases A single participant’s transcript can be written up as a case study in its own right or the analysis can integrate different cases. The cases may be intergrated in two ways 1. The researcher may produce summary tables for each participant. The researcher will then attempt to intergrate these into an inclusive list of master themes that reflects the experiences of the group of participants as a whole. 2. The summary table for the first participant may be used in the analysis of subsequent cases. The researcher aims to recognise ways in which accounts from participants are similar but also different. Writing up Themes are converted into a narrative account. The identified themes are presented in the analysis together with illustrative quotations from the participants. The table of themes is the basis for the account of the participants’ responses. Care is taken to distinguish clearly between what the respondent said and the analyst’s interpretation of what the respondent said. Grounded Theory Grounded theory may be defined as the discovery of theory from data systematically obtained from social research (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The term grounded refers to the idea that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from and rooted in data that have been collected in the field. In grounded theory, categories are developed and refined by the researcher in order to explain whatever the researcher regards as the significant features of the data. The researcher starts with a general research subject and builds their research question as they collect data. The theory that ultimately evolves has conceptual density (Schram, 2006). When to use grounded theory. Grounded theory can be useful for exploring a new research area. Grounded theory studies are especially helpful when current theories about a phenomenon are either inadequate or nonexistent (Leedy & Omrod, 2014) Ideal for exploring integral social relationships and the behaviour of groups where there has been little exploration of the contextual factors that affect individual’s lives (Crooks, 2001). Grounded Theory aims to uncover the underlying processes of what is going on, so that professionals can intervene with confidence to help resolve the participant's main concerns.’ Principles of grounded theory Grounded theory involves the progressive identification and integration of categories of meaning from data (Willig, 2013). According to Strauss & Corbin, 1990, Grounded theory has three key strategies namely: constant comparison, theoretical sampling, and theoretical coding. Also referred to as building blocks Categories Refers to concepts that stand for phenomena (Howitt, 2013). Categories encompass a variety of similarly themed codes. These designate the grouping together of instances that share central features or characteristics with one another. (Willig, 2013) At a low level of abstraction, they function as descriptive labels or concepts. At a higher level of abstraction the categories are analytic. They interpret instances of phenomenon They merge from the data, they are not mutually exclusive and they evolve throughout the research Coding/Naming This is the process by which categories are identified (Willig, 2013). Refers to the analytic processes through which data are fractured, conceptualised and intergrated to form theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Coding constitutes the most basic as well as the most fundamental process in grounded theory (Howitt & Cramer, 2011). Coding can be carried out line-by-line, sentence-by-sentence, paragraph-by- paragraph, page-by-page, section-by- section (Willig, 2013). The line is examined and a description/s is provided by the researcher to describe what is happening in that line or what is ‘represented’ by that line. The smaller the unit of analysis the more numerous the descriptive categories that emerge initially. Later stages of analysis will integrate a lot of these descriptive categories into higher-level analytic categories. Constant Comparative Analysis Constant comparison focuses on the similarities and differences between categories. This comparison leads to the emergence of subcategories. Constant comparative analysis ensures that the researcher does not merely build up categories but also breaks them down again into smaller units of meaning (Willig, 2013). The ultimate objective of constant comparative analysis is to link and integrate categories in such a way that all instances of variation are captured by the emerging theory. Negative case analysis These are cases that do not fit in the identified categories. The identification of such cases allows the researcher to qualify and elaborate the merging theory, adding depth and density to it, so that it is able to capture the full complexity of the data on which it is based. Theoretical sensitivity Analysis is the interplay between researchers and data. Theoretical sensitivity refers to a personal quality of the researcher. Researchers will become theoretically sensitive by immersing themselves in the data and trying to understand what the participants see as being significant and important. Theoretical sensitivity moves the researcher from a descriptive to an analytic level (Willig, 2013). The researcher engages with the data by asking questions, making comparisons and looking for opposites. Theoretical sampling Theoretical sampling entails checking the emerging theory against reality by collecting more data that may challenge or elaborate the emerging ideas or theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). It is data gathering that is driven by concepts derived from the evolving theory and based on the concept of making comparisons whose purpose is to go to places, people, or events that will maximise opportunities to discover variations among concepts and to densify categories in terms of their properties and dimensions. Theoretical saturation The point in category development at which no new properties, dimensions or relationships emerge during analysis. The researcher continues to sample and code data until no new categories can be identified, and until new instances of variation for existing categories have ceased to emerge (Willig, 2013). Memo writing Memos are written records of a researcher’s thinking during the process of undertaking a grounded theory study. They vary in subject, intensity, coherence, theoretical content and usefulness to the finished product. The researcher writes ideas, concepts and other analytic notions in a memo as an aid to theory development. (Howitt, 2013) The researcher notes definitions of categories and justifies labels chosen for them, traces emergent relationships and keeps a record of the progressive integration of higher- and lower-level categories (Willig, 2013). Research Process Grounded theory merges the processes of data collection and analysis (Willig, 2013). Grounded theory encourages the researcher to continuously review earlier stages of the research and, if necessary, to change direction The research question Grounded theory research questions should aim to discover emergent ideas or connections and to increase understanding of: meaning, context, process, how things happen, and the ways in which variables affect each other. Data Collection According to Glaser (1998) all is data. The key thing is that the primary data should be as richly detailed as possible. Data Analysis Coding constitutes the most basic as well as the most fundamental process in grounded theory. There are different types of coding, open coding, axial coding, selective coding. Corbin and Strauss (2008; Strauss and Corbin, 1990), suggest the following steps: 1. Open coding. It is a process of reducing the data to a small set of categories that appear to describe the phenomenon under investigation (Leedy & Omrod, 2014). 2. Axial coding. Interconnections are made among categories and subcategories. 3. Selective coding. The categories and their interrelationships are combined to create a story line that describes “what happens” in the phenomenon being studied. 4. Development of a theory. A theory, in the form of a verbal statement or visual model, is offered to explain the phenomenon in question. Ethnography Used to describe and characterise the behaviour and identity of a group or culture. Ethnography is used to understand the intricacies of culture as it is defined and described by members of that culture (Privitera, 2015). Ethnographies focus on developing a complex, complete description of the culture of a group (Creswell & Poth, 2016). The researcher looks for patterns of social organization (e.g., social networks) and ideational systems (e.g., worldview, ideas; Wolcott, 2008) Ethnography is used to study macro-level and micro-level groups and cultures. Macro-level cultures or groups are those with large membership, such as all members of a country, government, or continent. Micro-level cultures or groups are those with small membership e.g a sports team Researchers utilise primarily participant observation in order to study groups or culture (Privitera, 2015). In order to gain entry into a group or culture researchers can: 1. Researchers can covertly or secretly enter a group. This strategy can work for larger groups 2. 2. Researchers can announce or request entry into a group. The researcher can try to get the group to habituate to his or her presence or accept him or her as a member of the group. Ethnography must answer 2 questions: 1. “What do people in this setting have to know and do to make this system work?” 2. “How do those being inducted into the group find their ‘way in’ so that an adequate level of sharing is achieved?” (Wolcott, 2010) Psychoethnography The approach was pioneered by Aptekar (1988). Psychoethnography combines methods rooted in both psychology and anthropology Involves entry into the participants’ setting for a sustained period to collect psychological data in the contexts within which the participants live. Narrative Research Narrative research is concerned with the human means of making sense of an ever- changing world. It is through narrative that we can bring a sense of order to the seeming disorder in our world. Through narratives we can begin to define ourselves as having some sense of temporal continuity and as being distinct from others. (Murray, 2015) Narrative analysis is a form of analysis in which the analyst focuses on how respondents impose order on the flow of experience in their lives and thus make sense of events and actions in which they have participated. People make connections between events and interpret them through constructing narratives about their lives (Willig, 2013). Narrative analysis aims to produce knowledge about how people weave their experiences into meaningful stories and some of the social and psychological consequences of this. Narrative analysis focuses on “the story itself” and seeks to preserve the integrity of personal biographies or a series of events that cannot adequately be understood in terms of their discrete elements (Riessman 2002:218). Narrative methods use interviews and sometimes documents or observations to “follow participants down their trails” (Riessman 2008:24). According to Murray (2003) a narrative is an organised interpretation of a sequence of events which involves attributing agency to the characters in the narrative and inferring causal links between the events. It provides people with an opportunity to define themselves, to clarify the continuity in their lives and to convey this to others. McAdams (1993) argues the majority of narratives share 6 features: settings, characters, initiating events, attempts, consequences and reactions. Stories usually take place in settings and involve characters who take part in the story. An initiating event often sparks an attempt to reach a goal which leads to consequences that require a reaction from the characters. Narratives highlight a human perspective and interpretation on those events. How to conduct a narrative analysis Narrative analysis should be systematic and clear, as long as it generates into the structure of the narrative, its functions and its social or psychological implications. Crossley (2000) outlines a semi structured interview protocol that can be used for narrative interviews. The interview is used to cover seven questions about life chapters, key events, significant people, future scripts, stresses and problems, personal ideologies and life themes. A question about life chapters involves of thinking of life as a book and dividing it into distinct chapters. The key events question asks about the critical and significant episodes in the past. The significant people question asks about crucial people in the life story and particular heroes and heroines. The future script question asks about a person’s future plans and dreams. The stresses and problems question investigates significant conflicts, unresolved issues, problems and stressors. The personal ideology question explores essential beliefs and values. The life theme question examines whether there is a central theme, message or idea within the person’s narrative. There are no standard procedures for carrying out a narrative analysis. Langdridge (2007), Hiles and Cermak (2008) recommend that the researcher apply a range of interpretative perspectives to the narrative. This implies working through the text repeatedly, asking different questions of the narrative. The coding for a narrative analysis is typically of the narratives as a whole, rather than of the different elements within them. The coding strategy revolves around reading the stories and classifying them into general patterns. Researchers also consider how the narratives are shaped by wider social and cultural narratives. Mishler (1986) argues that it is important to pay attention to the role of the interview context in shaping the narrative, as narratives do not occur in isolation, but are a result of the interaction between the researcher and the participant. A narrative is a joint production between interviewer and participant as ‘the interviewer’s presence and form of is integral to a respondent’s account. Qualitative Data Analysis One of the most important steps in the qualitative research process is analysis of data. Analysis is the process a researcher uses to reduce data and make sense of them.(In other words we are looking at interpretation. Patton 1987 indicates that 3 things happen during analysis 1) Data are organised 2) Data is reduced through summarisation and categorisation 3) Patterns and themes in the data are identified and linked. Thematic Analysis It is a method for recognising and organising patterns in content and meaning in qualitative data. It underpins most other methods of qualitative data analysis (Why, because it is used to organise and regognise patterns). Thematic analysis has been described as involving a search for themes that emerge as being important to the description of the phenomenon under investigation (Fereday, 2006). It constitutes a form of pattern recognition within the data. Thematic analysis is not tied to any particular theoretical approach to qualitative research. This means that researchers who use TA need to decide what exactly the themes identified in the analysis represent. The theoretical status of a themes is something that the researcher needs to determine not something that the method itself describes. Thematic analysis is one of the most commonly used methods of qualitative analysis. A theme refers to a specific pattern of meaning found in the data (Joffe, 2012). It captures something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set. A theme is a pattern that at a minimum describes and organises the possible observations and at a maximum interprets aspects of the phenomenon. (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006) (What do these three definitions have in common?) In thematic analysis the task of the researcher is to identify a limited number of themes which adequately reflect their textual data. Data familiarisation is a key to thematic analysis as it is for other qualitative methods. Following data familiarisation, the researcher will normally code their data. That is, they apply brief verbal descriptions to small chunks of data. At every stage of the analysis, the researcher will alter and modify the analysis in the light of experience and as ideas develop. Thematic analysis is not a single, identifiable approach to the analysis of qualitative data (Howitt and Cramer, 2011). There is no accepted, standardised approach to carrying out a thematic analysis. TA is suited to a wide range of research interests and theoretical perspectives, and is useful as a ‘basic’ method because: 1) it works with a wide range of research questions, from those about people’s experiences or understandings to those about the representation and construction of particular phenomena in particular contexts 2) it can be used to analyse different types of data, from secondary sources such as media to transcripts of focus groups or interviews Carrying out thematic analysis There are a number of different ways in which thematic analysis can be done, this means that the researcher has needs to have a clear purpose about their thematic analysis. This will enable them to decide which approach to use. Clarity about the research question will help the researcher choose the most appropriate approach to their thematic approach. To assist the decision making process, the researcher may need to ask themselves the following questions 1) What he/she wants to know? 2)What type of data he/she will collect? 3) How they will code their data? 4) How they will interpret the themes? 5) What they can conclude from their analysis? What he/she wants to know? Thematic analysis can be used to address different questions. The nature of the research question has implications for the researcher’s approach to thematic analysis. The researcher needs to clearly state their research question. This will ensure that the researcher is clear about whether the want to simply identify themes, whether the want to compare themes or whether they want to theorise a phenomenon the basis of themes. What type of data he/she will need to collect The research question determines the type the type of data that will be collected. Thematic analysis works with a wide range of materials including transcripts of interviews and focus group discussions, media texts and images, personal diaries, letters even text messages. Any materials that can be analysed for meaning and content are suitable data for thematic analysis. How will they code their data? Once the data has been collected it needs to be coded. Coding is the first step in thematic analysis. The researcher starts by familiarising him or herself with the data by reading and rereading the text several times. The researcher will develop some ideas about the nature of the data and its relevance in relation to the research question. It is a good idea to make a note of these ideas before the more systematic process of coding begins, as these initial ideas are more likely to influence the researcher’s choice of codes. Coding the data involves working through the text ideally line by line, in order to identify meaning units and labeling these with a code that captures the meaning identified. Codes are not the same as themes. Codes capture basic units of meaning in a descriptive fashion. The same segment can have more than one code. It is only when the researcher pays attention to potential patterns across the codes and reflects on the underlying meaning of what has been said that actual themes can be identified. Themes capture clusters of codes and they always constitute a higher level of analysis than coding does. There will always be fewer themes than there are codes. How will they interpret the themes? The identification of themes involves decisions about what is important and what is salient (noticeable or striking). The research needs to adopt a set of criteria which help them determine what is and what is not worth thematising The criteria is informed by the research question. It is also important to take care not to construct themes which simply reflect the researcher’s interview questions. E.g a researcher may ask the participants questions about how the felt about their experience, what their attitudes towards it were and how they made a decision about what to do. The researcher’s themes are then labeled feelings, attitudes and decisions they have not in fact conducted an analysis of the data (Willig, 2013). Instead the have classified the participants’ responses under the topics raised in the researcher's question s and this does not communicate anything useful. Themes are supposed to capture the essence of relevant meanings contained within the codes and to identify relevant patterns across the codes. Themes ought to allow the researcher to tell a story about what is going on in the data. They are interpretative in that they make connections between codes, links codes in a meaningful way and produces insights into the relationships between them. Themes reside in our heads from our thinking about our data and creating links as we understand them. Connections and relationships between codes and themes can be represented in the form of thematic maps which look like a bit like mind maps or spider diagrams (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The final step in the analysis involves a review of the themes that have been identified with a view to constructing an explanatory framework on the basis of the most important themes. Reviewing themes means checking whether some could be further integrated into higher order themes or whether some could be further intergrated into higher order themes or whether some themes may not be relevant to the research question, and making further connections between themes. This phase of the research requires the researcher to move continually between the evolving thematic map and the raw data, as reviewing themes always also involves reviewing data extracts. It is possible to recode segments of text, to reallocate extracts to themes and even to change one’s mind about the core themes which structure data. A researcher’s decision about what is and what is not important can evolve throughout the analsis. What can they conclude from their analysis? This is the most interpretative stage as it involves an attempt to both capture and account for thematic patterns in the data, and ideally to also theorise them. The aim of qualitative analysis is to generate insights which constitute at least a partial answer to the research question which motivated the research. The types of conclusions drawn from an analysis, the complexity of the insights generated, will reflect the complexity of the research question. Content Analysis 18/10/2018 Uses archival records to analyse the content of specific events or behaviors (Privitera, 2016). Is used to analyse or interpret the detailed content in the records It focuses on any verbal, visual, or behavioural form of communication 18/10/2018 Content analyses are typically performed on forms of human communication, including books, newspapers, personal journals, legal documents, films, television, art, music, videotapes of human interactions, transcripts of conversations, and Internet blog and bulletin board entries (Leedy & Omrod.2010) The purpose of content analysis is to identify the specific characteristics of a body of material. 18/10/2018 To use a content analysis, the following must be identified: 1. The unit of analysis in the document or existing record. What information or content in the document will you specifically analyse, code, or interpret? 2. The operational definition for the content analysed. What words or features in the content are of interest? How will you be able to identify that content? 18/10/2018 Coding of the material is done in terms of predetermined and precisely defined characteristics (Leedy & Omrod, 2010). It involves coding participants’ open-ended talk into closed categories, which summarize and systematize the data (Jonathan Smith, 2015). These categories may be derived either from the data themselves this is known as a ‘bottom-up’ approach, or from the prior theoretical framework of the researcher , this is known as a ‘top-down’ approach, and requires prior familiarity with the literature on the topic under investigation in order to derive the categories. 18/10/2018 The end point of the analysis may be simply to illustrate each category by means of representative quotations from the data, presented either in a table or written up as consecutive prose 18/10/2018 Trustworthiness Trustworthiness is brought about by the fact that qualitative research strives to collect naturalistic data. The flexibility and open endedness of the research methods raises validity issues. However, qualitative research methods provide the space for validity issues to be addressed during the research itself (Willig, 2013). Validity is treated by qualitative researchers as built-in because of the preference for real-life-based data such as recordings of natural conversations. Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative research: credibility, which parallels internal validity transferability, which parallels external validity dependability, which parallels reliability confirmability, which parallels objectivity (Bryman, 2012). Credibility Credibility is defined as the confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings(Holloway & Wheeler, 2002). It establishes whether or not the research findings represent plausible information drawn from the participants’ original data and is a correct interpretation of the participants’ original views (Lincoln & Guba 1985). Strategies used to ensure credibilty include : prolonged and varied field experience, self reflexivity , triangulation, member checking, peer examination. Prolonged field exposure The researcher is required to absorb him or herself in the participants’ world (Bitsch, 2005). This helps the researcher to gain an insight into the context of the study. It also minimizes the distortions of information that might arise due to the presence of the researcher in the field. The researcher’s extended time in the field improves the trust of the respondents and provides a greater understanding of participants’ culture and context. Triangulation Triangulation “involves the use of multiple and different methods, investigators, sources and theories to obtain corroborating evidence” It helps the investigator to reduce bias and it cross examines the integrity of participants’ responses. Reflexivity Reflexivity is very crucial as the researcher is the primary “instrument” of data collection and analysis (Glesne, 1999; Russell & Kelly, 2002). Essentially it refers to the sensitivity or awareness of the researcher as to how they may influence the nature of the data collected and the analysis. Reflexivity entails avoiding deployment of one’s subjectivity to assist the data collection and analysis (Hollway & Jefferson, 2000). The researcher influences the research process, both as a person (personal reflexivity) and as a theorist or thinker (epistemological reflexivity). Reflexivity ensures that the research process as a whole is scrutinised throughout and that the researcher continuously reviews his or her own role in the research (Willig, 2013). Through reflection researchers become aware of what allows them to see, as well as what may inhibit their seeing (Russell & Kelly, 2002). At the end of a research report a researcher may reflect on how the research changed him or her and their thinking about the subject matter of the study. Respondent validation This is a check on the extent to which the researcher’s account corresponds to those of participants in the research. Is also known as member checking or member validation. Respondent validation, which is also sometimes called member validation Qualitative researchers want to ensure that there is a good correspondence between their findings and the perspectives and experiences of their research participants (Bryman, 2012). Peer Debriefing Feedback from peers helps the researcher to improve the quality of the research findings. Negative case analysis It is when data emerging from the research contradicts the researcher’s expectations (Bitsch, 2005). Reporting negative cases improves the credibility of the study because the researcher accounts for the contradiction that emerged from the data, which could provide a plausible alternative explanation. Dependability Dependability refers to “the stability of findings over time” This is established through a detailed methodology section and the use of code and recode strategies during data analysis (Anney, 2014). Confirmability Confirmability is the degree of researcher objectivity in the study’s results (Bryman, 2012). Confirmability is concerned with ensuring that, while recognizing that complete objectivity is impossible, the researcher can be shown to have acted in good faith. This is enhanced by self reflexivity and triangulation. Transferability Refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be applied to other contexts with other respondents (Anney, 2014). It is the interpretive equivalent of generalizability Qualitative research does not utilise representative samples (Willig, 2013). It is difficult to generalise research results due to non representatives of samples. Transferability is facilitated through purposive sampling , a and thick description (Geertz, 1973), that is, rich accounts of the details of a culture. Research Proposal Writing Research proposal A research proposal is a sales document that is honest, factual and responsive to the needs of others. A good research proposal is persuasive, accurate and complete. Communication in the proposal should be clear, the argument should flow and ambiguity should be eliminated. A proposal has two main aims 1. A proposal should be used to guide the researcher in carrying out the research. 2. The proposal is a means of communicating the research plan to others. When writing a research proposal Follow STRICTLY, the APA style and guidelines. Structure of the Proposal A research report or proposal should at least consist of the following sections: A title page, introduction, aim, objectives, justification, problem statement, literature review, methodology Title The title page should contain a clear, meaningful topic and names of all researchers involved. The research title should communicate the purpose of the research and guide the reviewer’s expectations. Titles should be short and interesting, and provide information about the project’s content. Introduction Overall aim of the project and why it is worth investigating (i.e in what way will the findings of a study such as the one envisaged be useful? This section thoroughly describes the problem being studied, makes it clear what is known and what is not known about the problem. The introduction should interest the reader and provide enough information for the reader to understand the logic of the argument. Literature review A structured summary of the major findings that are relevant to the research question being investigated. The LR supports and justifies the study. Literature Review could include: Statistics on the problem Critical analysis of findings from previous studies Implications of previous studies in terms of what might be expected in your study Previous definitions of key terms to be used in your study A literature review ends with a clear statement of what the proposed study seeks to investigate (i.e. research problem) Accessing the relevant literature Always start with the most recent literature and then work backwards not vice-versa. Information centres, subject abstracts, indexes or reviews should be consulted. Literature sources include journals, Psychological Bulletin, Current directions in Psychological science, online databases such as Psycinfo, Social Sciences citation Index(SSCI) and Medline. PsycINFO: Computer database that maintains all the abstracts Psychological abstracts - Brief summaries of articles in psychology and related disciplines indexed by topic area Social Sciences Citation Index Accessed using the Web of Science computer database The most important feature is the ability to use the “key article” method (Cozby, 2015). You can then search for the subsequent articles that cited the key article. Statement of the problem The problem statement suggests that something is wrong , something needs close attention or existing methods of doing something no longer seem to be working. aim This is the general purpose of the study (e.g. To contribute towards an understanding of how people cope with terminal illness). The aim answers the question “what do you intend to research”? Objectives More specific –( e.g. To examine the role of social support on coping strategies adopted by terminally ill patients among black South African men residing in urban areas of the Limpopo province). Criteria for setting research objectives Objectives should be specific. Objectives should be measurable in some form or the other. Objectives should be feasible and attainable within the limits of time and resources available bearing in mind possible risks. Objectives should be relevant to the topic as well as the environmental and socio economic parameters pertaining in the country. Research questions Are used to identify and describe the broad topic being investigated (Cozby) A research question calls for an answer that provides detailed descriptions and, where possible, also explanations of a phenomenon (Willig). Research is conducted in order to answer research questions (Cozby, 2015). They identify the phenomenon that the researcher wants to investigate. Research rationale/Justification This provides reasons why the research is being conducted. Methodology This is very important because it illustrates how you plan to answer your research question. The methods section describes how the study is to be conducted. The issues must be explained in a manner that demonstrates a clear understanding of the various issues relating to trustworthiness of the proposed study. The guiding principle of the method section is that it must be detailed enough for other researchers to read and it and be able to replicate the study. Methodology must include a detailed account of the following issues, design, participants, instruments, procedure and data analysis. Design What type of design do you propose to answer your research question/s. Explain why that design has been chosen. Deal at this point with any issues of trustworthiness that are of a general type. Participants How many participants? How will you get the sample? Foreseeable difficulties in accessing the sample? Limitations of using that sample. Sampling The sampling strategy to be followed should be explained in detail. How will the sample be selected? Why is the sampling technique chosen appropriate to the study (justify the technique). What are the characteristics of the required sample (age, gender, race) and why are they required. Why those participants? Instruments Describe the interview schedule, focus group schedule or observation guide you will use. Give a brief description of the major parts of the schedule Samples of instruments/materials used be included as an Appendix (e.g. interview guides, pictures) Procedure Explain in detail how you propose to carry out your study. Describe in detail, what will be done from the moment you approach the participant to the time you ‘release’ the participant (i.e recruitment procedure, instructions, completion context (e.g. individually, in groups, etc), dealing with potential problems, etc). Use appendices to include any diagrams (e.g. seating plan). Data Analysis What will the researcher do when the data is collected? A qualitative research proposal should include an account of the data analysis technique that will be employed. A research report Differs from the proposal in that contains an abstract. It is written in past tense whereas the proposal is written in future tense. Abstract: Summary of the research report 120 words or less Aim, procedure, and the broad pattern of results Last part of an article to be written (Cozby, 2015) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES PRESENTED BY  CHAHWE RUTENDO E R224810U  RANGARIRA TADIWA P R224806Q  MUGWENJEDZI DORCAS R203714N  OSAKALA VIOLA R224799J  CHIGONYATI RUVIMBO R224815G QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES A qualitative research philosophy is a set of basic beliefs that guide the design and execution of a research study (Katherine et al ,2020) According to Creswell, 2007 philosophy of qualitative research is ,”interpretative ,humanistic and naturalistic”, and it displays significant importance to subjectivity. This philosophies shape the way researchers conceptualize and conducts their studies ,data collection, analysis and interpretation of findings PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACHES TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH CONSTRUCTIVISM According to Honebein (1996), the constructivism philosophical paradigm is an approach that makes the claim that individuals build their own understanding and knowledge of the world by reflecting on and experiencing things. It is predicated on the idea that most of what people learn is formed or constructed by experience(Cashman et al.,2008;Hein, 1999) Focuses on the understanding that reality is socially constructed ,emphasizing multiple perspectives Example; Exploring how individuals from different cultural backgrounds construct their understanding of identity within a globalized society Applications; Often used in studies exploring cultural, social or identity related phenomena ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Provides insights into Subjectivity can be a diverse perspectives challenge in Acknowledges the role establishing of context in shaping generazability reality Interpretations may Developsadvanced vary among skills such as critical researchers thinking, analysis, evaluation and creation INTERPRETIVISM Emphasizes the importance of interpretating the meanings people ascribe to their experiences, aimimg to comprehend subjective realities Example; Investigating how employees interpret and make sense of organizationalchanges wthin a company, focusing on their subjective experiences Applications; Commonly employed in studies , investigating scial interactons , beliefs and cultural practices ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Emphasizes Findings may be understanding the context specific and meanings people challenging to attribute to genaralize experience Interpretations may be Well suited for influenced by exploring complex researcher’s social phenomena perspectives PHENOMENOLOGY This philosophy explores on understanding and interpretation individual’s lived experiences from the perspective of those who live with them and the meanings they attribute to them aiming to take hold of the essence of these experiences (Edmund Husserl,1859-1938) It is a philosophy of experience where a researcher describe an essence of a phenomenon by exploring it from the perspective of those who have experienced it Example: Studying the employee’s experiences of gender based violence in the workplace understanding their lived experiences, perceptions and coping strategies of the participants providing a rich understanding of the essence of gender based violence at the workplace. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES In-depth Time consuming understanding Potential bias Emphasis on human Subjectivity experiences Lack of Flexibility generalizability ETHNOGRAPHY Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organisation to observe their behaviour and interactions (Jack Caulfield ,2020) This philosophy emphasizes the study of cultures and societies through participant observation and in-depth interviews. It is used to understand different cultures and societies Example: A anthropologist going to a rural downgraded area, living within the society for a certain time and studying their social dynamics ,everyday life, and rituals aiming to provide an in-depth understanding of their culture ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Rich data collection Time consuming Contextual insights Resource intensive Cross cultural Difficulty in data understanding analysis Limited scope GROUNDED THEORY Grounded theory aims to develop theories from the observation of the social world allowing themes and concepts to emerge during research(Rice & Ezzy 1999) This philosophy aims to develop theories based on the systematic analysis of data It is used to develop theories and understand the experiences, behaviours and interactions of the people. Example; A researcher examines the experiencesof individuals who have successfully changed from traditional to remote work.Through qualitative interviews and constant comparative analysis , the study aims to develop a grounded theory on the cultural practices or social dynamics and economic challenges ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Allows the Requires careful development of coding and analysis theories grounded in whichcan be time data consuming Suitable for exploring Theoratical saturation new or complex might be challenging phenomena to archieve in some cases CASE STUDY Indepth exploration of a specific instance or case , often aiming to understand complexities and contextual factors Example; Conducting a case study on a specific educational program to exploreits impact on student learning outcomes, considering the unique context and variables involved ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Offers indepth insights Findings may not be into complex generalizable to phenomena broader populations Allows for the Subject to the exploration of real life researchers contexts interpretation NARRATIVE ENQUIRY Focuses on the study of how individuals create and tell stories to make sense to their experiences ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Provides rich Interpretation of the descriptions narratives may be Offers an holistic subjective as understanding of researchers may bring individuals’ their own biases experiences by their Is time consuming stories Ethical concerns may Empowers participants arise when dealing by allowing them to with sensitive or share their stories traumatic narratives FEMINISTIC RESEARCH Grounded in feminist theories , it seeks to understand and address issues relate to gender power dynamics and social justice.Emphasizes giving voice to marginalized groups particularly women. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Emphasizes a Prone to bias and commitment to social positionality of the justice , aiming to reseachers’ feminist address power may imoact the imbalances and interpretation of data advocate for the rights Can be political and experiences of sensitive marginalized groups particularly women FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS THAT SHAPE THE RESEARCHERS PERSPECTIVE AND APPROACH  ONTOLOGY  Refers to the researcher's assumptions and belief about the nature of reality and existence. Address question about what exists , what can be know and the nature of the relationship between the researcher and the researched.  EPISTIMOLOGY  Is the study of the process of knowing or how we know what we know(Guba & Lincoln,2008; Ponterotto,2005). Is concerned with how we gain knowledge of what exists and the relationship between the knower.  Axiological  Is concerned with researcher's values and the roles of value in process.Involvees an an examination of ethical considerations, beliefs and perspectives that guide research.

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