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Questions and Answers

What is qualitative research in psychology about?

The study of meaning.

According to Kings & Brooks (2017), what is the focus in qualitative psychology?

The focus is on people as meaning-makers, and on describing and understanding the ways in which we experience and interpret our world.

Qualitative research produces quantitative data.

False

What is the key assumption of qualitative research, according to Smith (2003)?

<p>Reality is constructed by individuals interacting with their social worlds.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does qualitative research aim to understand, according to Schwandt (2001)?

<p>The meaning of human action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative research focuses on testing predetermined hypotheses?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does qualitative research focus on, according to Howard & Berg (2016)?

<p>Meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are qualitative researchers interested in?

<p>How people experience events</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative methods emphasize the perspective of the individual and their individuality?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Denzin & Lincoln (2000), what do qualitative methods emphasize?

<p>The perspective of the individual and their individuality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of research is qualitative research often referred to as?

<p>Idiographic research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does qualitative research aim to understand?

<p>What it is like to experience particular conditions and how people manage certain situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researchers are interested in the meanings attributed to events by the research participants themselves?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Willig (2013), What are qualitative researchers concerned with?

<p>The quality and texture of experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the objective of qualitative research?

<p>To describe and possibly explain events and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative reports often contain rich and thick descriptions?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researchers study people outside of their own territory?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researchers study individuals as objects of study?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Is prediction of outcomes a meaningful goal for qualitative researchers?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first person perspective, according to Ashworth (2003)?

<p>Propositions about psychological events can be stated only in the third person from the viewpoint of the observer rather than that of the actor themselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the perceptual approach to qualitative research?

<p>It considers the viewpoint of the research participant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the idiographic approach in qualitative research allow for?

<p>Individual differences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are people's own accounts of their experiences regarded in qualitative research?

<p>They are regarded as understandable and meaningful in their own terms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the key importance of qualitative research?

<p>Real world relevance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Ontology?

<p>The starting point of all research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Ontology ask?

<p>What is there to know?</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researchers embrace the idea of multiple realities?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Epistemology?

<p>A branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What two questions does Epistemology attempt to answer?

<p>How can we know? and What can we know?</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does methodology refer to?

<p>The How of the research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are methods in research?

<p>Techniques or procedures used to collect and analyse data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The method(s) chosen for a research project are inextricably linked to the research questions posed?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are axiological issues concerned with?

<p>Personal values, morals and ethics of the researcher.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the axiological assumption, all researchers bring values to a study?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researchers make their values explicit?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sampling?

<p>The process of selecting a portion of the population which will take part in a research study.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a sampling frame represent?

<p>An exhaustive list of all members of the population from which a sample can be drawn.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a population in research?

<p>A collection of all people being described or measured by a sample.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does sample size in qualitative research depend on?

<p>What wants to be known, the purpose of the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with the available time and resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sample size in qualitative research is often statistically determined?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Non-probability sampling is often used in qualitative research?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Strydom and Delport (2011), what does rich data ideally mean?

<p>A wide range of diverse information collected over a relatively prolonged period of time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common data collection technique in qualitative research?

<p>Interviews.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some of the data collection techniques used in qualitative research?

<p>Observation, Interviews, Focus group discussions and visual methods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Goodwin & Goodwin (2017), what is the major purpose of observational research?

<p>To provide clear and accurate descriptions of behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two popular observation techniques?

<p>Naturalistic observation and participant observation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is naturalistic observation also known as?

<p>Simple observation or non-participant observation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In naturalistic observation, researchers study their participants from 'outside'?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Is there direct interaction between researchers and participants in naturalistic observation?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The researcher's position is clearly defined in naturalistic observation?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is participant observation?

<p>A technique where observers hide the real purpose of their presence by becoming an integral part of the group, and observations are made as a member of the group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Participant observation can be used to avoid interference with the observed person?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Participant observation can provide deeper insights into the research problem.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher may become emotionally engaged during participant observation.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Inaccurate information may be recorded if notes are taken down secretly or from memory.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common data collection technique in qualitative psychology?

<p>Interviews.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does qualitative interviewing characteristically involve?

<p>Questions and probes by the interviewer designed to encourage the interviewee to talk freely and extensively about the topic(s) defined by the researcher.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the skills needed for a good qualitative interviewer?

<p>Highly developed listening skills, on-the-spot analytic skills, satisfactory interpersonal skills, and experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are unstructured interviews characterised by?

<p>Their lack of a predetermined interview schedule.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Unstructured interviews are most useful when little is known about the topic?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Unstructured interviews are appropriate for certain theoretical perspectives such as ethnography?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most widely used data collection technique in qualitative research in psychology?

<p>Semi-structured interviews.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Semi-structured interviews follow a predetermined interview schedule?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Smith and Osborn (2003), what is the interviewer free to do in semi-structured interviews?

<p>Probe interesting areas that arise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In semi-structured interviews, the respondent is considered the experiential expert on the subject.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Semi-structured interviews facilitate rapport and empathy?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Semi-structured interviews can reduce the control the investigator has over the situation?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a probe in research represent?

<p>A follow-up question that encourages a participant to expand on an initial answer in order to obtain more depth in their response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the stages involved in constructing an interview schedule?

<p>Thinking about the broad range of issues the interview has to cover, arranging the topics in the most appropriate sequence, thinking of appropriate questions related to each area in order to address the issues the researcher is interested in, and thinking about the probes and prompts which could follow from the answers given to some of the questions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a focus group?

<p>A collective interview, directed by the researcher (moderator), which exploits the interactive potential of the situation in order to generate rich data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus groups are often used to study a small number of people?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the moderator in a focus group?

<p>They introduce the group members to one another, introduce the focus of the group, and steer the issues raised by others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the important characteristics of a moderator in a focus group?

<p>Avoiding expressing personal opinions and avoiding appearing to be judgemental.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The discussion in a focus group is based around a series of questions known as the focus group schedule.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus groups inherently allow observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents' behavior?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus groups allow all individuals to express themselves freely?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus group data is best reported in ways that preserve the participants' own words, such as using illustrative quotations?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most important ethical concern in qualitative research?

<p>Informed consent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is another key ethical consideration in qualitative research?

<p>Avoiding physical and psychological harm to participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should a focus group schedule engage?

<p>The participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The focus group schedule should use appropriate vocabulary?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The questions in a focus group schedule should flow logically?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The focus group schedule should provide opportunities for a variety of viewpoints to be expressed?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The focus group schedule should allow participants to raise points that have not occurred to the researcher?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should the introduction to a focus group session include?

<p>A recap of the study, the procedure to be followed, and the ground rules for the focus group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should the closing comments in a focus group session include?

<p>A summary of the session, any necessary debriefing, and a reiteration of thanks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should a researcher consider when selecting participants for a focus group?

<p>The sort of participants who will yield the most satisfactory information relevant to your research question.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus group participants should be chosen to maximise the productivity of the discussion.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus group participants should be homogeneous?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus group members should generally be varied in terms of obvious factors?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

It is recommended to over-recruit focus group participants by about 50%?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should the location of a focus group set the tone of, according to Creswell & Poth (2016)?

<p>The research as professional and where possible on neutral ground.</p> Signup and view all the answers

If there is no choice of venue, a focus group should be held at a neutral location?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

When selecting a venue for a focus group, the main consideration is balancing participant comfort, convenience, and a good recording environment?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Focus group participants should be seated in a circle in easy chairs or around a table?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is another term for case study research?

<p>Idiographic research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a case study?

<p>An in-depth analysis of a single person or a group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A case study is a research method?

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does case study research involve?

<p>The use of a wide range of diverse methods of data collection and analysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the term case study used?

<p>Because the focus of study (e.g., the individual, group, organization, or event) is called a “case”.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of case studies?

<p>A particular unit of analysis, the case.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are units of analysis in research?

<p>The units of observation: things that are examined in order to study the chosen topic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does case study research involve, according to Hart (2018)?

<p>An in-depth, intensive, and sharply focused exploration of an occurrence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Case study research allows researchers to closely examine the data within a specific context.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are some of the defining features of case study research?

<p>An idiographic perspective, attention to contextual detail, triangulation, a temporal element, and a concern with theory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are researchers concerned with in idiographic research?

<p>The particular rather than the general.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the aim of idiographic research?

<p>To understand an individual case in its particularity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Case study research takes a holistic approach?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the researcher pay attention to in case study research?

<p>The ways in which the various dimensions of the case relate or interact with its environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cases cannot be considered in isolation?

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does triangulation in case study research involve?

<p>The integration of information from diverse sources to gain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Qualitative Research Overview

  • Psychologists study human and animal behavior and mental processes to understand people and improve human life.
  • Qualitative research in psychology focuses on the study of meaning, with people as meaning-makers.
  • It aims to describe and understand how we experience and interpret the world.

Qualitative Research Data

  • Qualitative research produces descriptive data, often in the form of spoken or written words, or observable behaviors.
  • Reality is seen as constructed by individuals interacting with their social worlds.

Aims and Features of Qualitative Research

  • Qualitative research aims to understand the meaning of human action.
  • It asks open-ended questions about phenomena in context, not to test hypotheses.
  • It focuses on meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions of things.

Qualitative Researchers' Focus

  • Qualitative researchers are concerned with the quality and texture of experience.
  • They seek to understand "what it is like" to experience specific conditions and how people manage situations.
  • They are interested in meanings attributed to events by participants themselves.

Qualitative Research Importance

  • Qualitative research has real-world relevance.

Key Concepts (Ontology)

  • Ontology is the starting point of all research, concerned with the nature of reality (what is there to know?).
  • Qualitative researchers accept the idea of multiple realities.

Key Concepts (Epistemology)

  • Epistemology is a branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge, attempting to answer "how can we know," and "what can we know?"

Methodology

  • Methodology is the general approach to studying a research topic, covering "how" research is carried out.
  • The chosen method(s) are closely connected to the research questions.

Axiological Issues

  • Axiological issues are concerned with the ethical and personal values of researchers.
  • Qualitative researchers explicitly state their values.

Qualitative Research Sampling

  • Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of a population for a research study.
  • Researchers select samples to learn more about the populations of interest.
  • A sampling frame is an exhaustive list of all members of a population from which a sample will be drawn.
  • A population is the whole group.

Sample Size in Qualitative Research

  • Sample size in qualitative research is determined by saturation rather than statistical methods, usually involving low cost and less time.
  • Sample size depends on the inquiry, what is at stake, what will be useful, and what can be accomplished given time and resources.
  • Non-probability sampling is almost exclusively used.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

  • The purpose of non-probability sampling in qualitative research is to gather rich data.
  • Rich data means a wide range of diversity of information collected over an extended period.
  • Researchers do not know the odds of selecting a particular individual due to unknown population sizes and members.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

  • Purposive sampling: Participants are selected based on their fit with the study's purpose and specific criteria.
  • Theoretical sampling: Sampling is guided by the need to develop theoretical arguments and understand the situation.
  • Deviant case sampling: Researcher selects participants who differ from the dominant characteristics to understand or clarify patterns, as their experience may suggest alternative interpretations and qualify the theory.
  • Sequential sampling: Gather participants and data until the amount of new information or the diversity of cases is completed.
  • Snowball sampling: Used when researcher has limited access to participants; a researcher approaches one participant, who then refers other participants.
  • Key informant sampling: Researcher relies on people identified as experts in the field.
  • Volunteer sampling: Participants offer to take part in a study; useful when participants know each other and encourage each other's involvement.

Qualitative Data Collection Techniques

  • Observations are the most common data collection method and may be used in conjunction with other techniques to enhance the research.
  • Two main observation types:
    • Naturalistic: Researcher studies participants from outside (no direct interaction).
    • Participant: Researcher becomes a member of the group (involves in-depth participation), offering greater insight but also risks losing detachment and potentially distorting data.

Interviews

  • Qualitative interviews characteristically involve open-ended questions and probes used to encourage participants to speak freely about the research topic.
  • This requires highly developed listening skills, on-the-spot analytic skills, and interpersonal skills.
  • Unstructured interviews: Have no predetermined schedule, useful for exploring a topic where little is known.
  • Semi-structured interviews: Provide a set of questions or topics to guide the conversation but offer flexibility.
  • Good interviewers carefully balance control and space to allow participants to redefine the topic. Includes probe questions, and are concerned with rapport/empathy.

Focus Groups

  • Focus groups are a collective interview with several people in an informal setting.
  • The researcher (moderator) guides the discussion.
  • The moderator steers the conversation following a schedule.
  • Researchers need to focus on the issue at hand and avoid judgmental opinions.
  • Focus groups inherently allow observation of group dynamics, discussion and first hand insights into respondent behavior, attitudes, language.
  • FGDs do not allow all participants to express their opinion fully, potentially increasing the effect of social desirability.

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

  • Informed consent, ethical clearances, and avoiding physical and psychological harm to participants (stress and anxiety) are crucial.

Preparing Materials for Qualitative Research

  • Focus group schedules should engage participants, use appropriate vocabulary, and questions should flow logically.
  • They should also provide opportunity for variety of viewpoints and allow participants to raise points not initially considered.

Selecting Participants for Research

  • Aiming to optimize the choice of participants and the best data possible.
  • Researchers must consider factors like maximizing discussion productivity, heterogeneous or homogeneous participant composition, and over-recruiting by a certain percentage to account for dropouts

Case Studies

  • Exploring a specific instance or case.
  • Case studies aim to understand the complexities and contextual factors, such as a specific educational program to explore its impact on student learning outcomes, considering the unique context and variables involved.

Qualitative Research Philosophies

  • Qualitative research philosophies (e.g., Constructivism, Interpretivism, Phenomenology, Ethnography) guide the design and execution of research studies.
  • They shape conceptualization, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of findings.

Describing Qualitative Research Philosophies

  • Constructivism: An approach that emphasizes that individuals construct knowledge and understanding of the world through experiences.
  • Interpretivism: Focuses on interpreting meanings people give to their experiences, aiming to comprehend subjective realities.
  • Phenomenology: A philosophy that explores human experiences and meanings through an in-depth, rich understanding from the perspective of people involved, aimed at identifying the essence of experiences.

Ethnography

  • Observing behavior and interactions in a community or organization.
  • Involves participant observation, in-depth interviews aimed towards gaining an in-depth understanding of a particular culture or community.

Grounded Theory

  • Building theory from data systematically obtained from research.
  • Researcher develops and refines categories to explain the significant features of the data, building a theory with conceptual density.

Content Analysis

  • Uses archival records to analyze the content of specific events or behaviors.
  • It focuses on any communication, including verbal, visual, and behavioral forms.
  • Uses coding techniques to analyze the materials, making use of either a bottom-up or top-down approach, and the analysis may conclude by illustrating identified categories using examples from the data.

Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

  • Trustworthiness is crucial, stemming from the nature of collecting naturalistic data through flexible and open-ended methods.
  • It consists of:
    • Credibility (similar to internal validity)
    • Transferability (similar to external validity)
    • Dependability (similar to internal reliability)
    • Confirmability (similar to objectivity).
  • Strategies to ensure credibility are prolonged and varied field experience, self-reflexivity, member checking, and peer examination.

Data Analysis for Qualitative Research

  • Organizing data through summarization and categorization.
  • Identifying and linking patterns and themes is key to interpretation.

Thematic Analysis

  • A method for recognizing patterns in qualitative data organized around identifying and understanding themes as patterns.
  • Not tied to specific theoretical perspectives.

Research Proposal Writing

  • A research proposal is a document that persuasively presents the research plan to stakeholders.
  • Includes title, introduction, aim, objectives, justification, problem statement, literature review, methodology, and ethical considerations.
  • Guidelines should be rigorously followed.
  • The proposal should be clear, with proper flow, and without ambiguity.

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