Integrating Qualitative Inquiry and Critical Whiteness in Psychology Research Methods Courses PDF

Special Issue Article Teaching of Psychology 2023, Vol. 50(2) 112–118 Integra...

Special Issue Article Teaching of Psychology 2023, Vol. 50(2) 112–118 Integrating Qualitative Inquiry and Critical © The Author(s) 2022 Article reuse guidelines: Whiteness in Psychology Research Methods sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/00986283211056886 journals.sagepub.com/home/top Courses Lorien S. Jordan1  Abstract Introduction: This paper merges two neglected components within the psychological sciences broadly and research methods courses specifically: Critical whiteness and qualitative methodologies. Statement of the Problem: In psychology programs, regardless of discipline, research courses remain one area where issues of race and racism, such as critical whiteness, are deemphasized. Similarly, methods courses rarely integrate qualitative inquiry and critical theory. Literature Review: First, I briefly review the relevant literature on the state of qualitative research in psychology. I then discuss critical whiteness, contextualizing the idea of whiteness, before moving into a review of the current research on whiteness in psychology. Teaching Implications: I present three experiential learning activities that further students’ skill development in qualitative methods while learning about three specific aspects of whiteness. Practicing observations, photovoice, and qualitative coding, students can reflect on the pervasiveness of white culture, colorblind racism, and racial microaggressions. Conclusion: The activities described in this article provide instructors one avenue to engage various aspects of whiteness and qualitative methods, phenomena routinely overlooked in graduate training. Keywords critical whiteness, qualitative research, colorblind racism, racialized microaggressions In 2020, growing awareness of systemic racism materialized constrains cultural practices, values, and attitudes by deter- across the United States as the racially differential effects of mining what is normative and simultaneously invisibilizing the COVID-19 pandemic intersected with ongoing police and naturalizing white supremacy (Sue, 2017). Transmitted brutality and vigilantism against Black communities (Okech through “overt and subliminal socialization processes and & Essof, 2021). Responding to these events, psychology was practices, power structures, laws, privileges, and life experi- called to address the pervasive developmental, social, and ences that favor the White racial group over all others” psychological effects of racism, including the function of (Helms, 2017, p. 718), whiteness remains invisible to White psychology in a racist society (Abrams, 2020; Grzanka et al., people, constructed as a universal norm. 2019). These calls accompany research noting the lack of In U.S. psychology, where almost 85% of the workforce is study of race and racism across many of the psychological White (Lin et al., 2018), a critical examination of whiteness can sciences (Buchanan & Wiklund, 2020; Falicov, 2014; Roberts surface how training, research, and practice maintain the “white et al., 2020). Given the overarching decentralization of race racial frame” (Feagin, 2020, p. 7). This article takes Helms and racism in the psychological sciences, the construct of whiteness remains neglected (Coleman et al., 2020; Schooley et al., 2019; Spanierman & Smith, 2017a). 1 College of Education and Health Professions, University of Arkansas, Critical race and whiteness scholars define whiteness as a Fayetteville, AR, USA, multifaceted ideology ingrained in the United States (see Cabrera et al., 2017 for a review). Whiteness, includes and Corresponding Author: Lorien S. Jordan, College of Education and Health Professions, University of extends racial identity, has structural dimensions grounded in Arkansas, 238 Graduate Education Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701-4002, psychological, social, and economic-material processes USA. (Matias, 2016). Hegemonically, whiteness maintains and Email: [email protected] Jordan 113 (2017) petition that educators reimagine “class activities with manifests within White persons, because of its ideological deconstructing whiteness as their theme” (p. 724) to introduce hold on U.S. society, all are affected and at risk of its re- activities incorporating components of critical whiteness with production. In CWS, race is positioned as a social construct qualitative methods, another marginalized phenomenon. that maintains hierarchies through phenotypical ordering (Omi & Winant, 2008). Thus, the significance of race is not biological but resides in the racialized social system (Bonilla-Silva, 2017), Critical Theory and Qualitative Research structured and maintained through the logics of white su- in Psychology premacy. Once an explicitly wielded legal, cultural, and po- Traditionally, psychology students are a-theoretically intro- litical tool de jure white supremacy evolved alongside the duced to methods grounded in postpositivist epistemologies demands of civil rights movements to invisibilize itself that value operationalizing, quantifying, and universalizing (Walsdorf et al., 2020). In its reformation to de facto white (Grzanka & Moradi, 2021). In a recent review of psychology supremacy (Walsdorf et al., 2020), colorblind ideologies re- textbooks, only one of the ten books discussed epistemology, placed outward claims of white superiority (Apfelbaum et al., presenting psychology’s shift from positivism to postpositivism 2012), enacted through colorblind racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2017). (Eagly & Riger, 2014). Similarly, qualitative research remains marginalized; a study indicated that of the 111 graduate pro- Invisible Whiteness and Colorblind Ideology grams in the United States, only 13% required qualitative re- search classes, with 17% offering electives (Rubin et al., 2018). Colorblind racism emerges from the discourse that all people In contrast to the traditional postpositivist training psy- are treated equally (Bonilla-Silva, 2017; Neville et al., 2013). chology students receive, qualitative researchers suggest that Colorblindness or “not seeing color” enables persons to ignore theory operates through all aspects of research, influencing re- racism, remaining unaware of societal white privilege searchers, recognized or not (Collins & Stockton, 2018). Thus, (Apfelbaum et al., 2012). Adoption of colorblind ideology methodological rigor is tied to epistemological transparency and simultaneously de-racializes and norms whiteness, obfuscating the application and clarification of one’s theoretical orientation to the foundational-perpetual reality of white supremacy in the credibility. While qualitative researchers apply multiple variants of United States (Leonardo, 2004). The intersection of invisibilize social theory and philosophies, critical psychologists use critical whiteness and colorblind ideology leaves White people largely social theories to culturally critique dominant research procedures, unaware of the “omnipresence of whiteness” (Helms, 2017, p. suggesting that the process and product of research can be lib- 721). Moreover, as a socialization process, it implicitly en- eratory (Levitt et al., 2021). To pursue these goals, critical re- courages people of color to assimilate to whiteness to survive. searchers advocate for research that includes theoretically driven analytic scrutiny of the influences of epistemology, social location, Whiteness in Psychology and biases about the research topic (Eagly & Riger, 2014). Perhaps psychology’s formative roots in objectivity and The above assumptions hold meaningful implications for the positivism (Eagly & Riger, 2014) have left little room for psychological sciences. The history of psychology lies within critical theorizing and qualitative research training in psychology the Europeanization of the “Western” world, where White men program (Levitt et al., 2021). It is also possible that the politici- were primarily responsible for the field’s formations, theo- zation of critical theories is considered a threat to rigorous research retical orientations, and research methodologies (Helms, and scholarly development. For example, the current public 2017). Assumptions of objective, neutral, and value-free backlash on critical race theory has been accompanied by legis- science promote the epistemological normalization of lative bans on teaching racism, surveillance of education practices, whiteness as the universal ideal and, thus, the measuring stick, withholding school funding, and targeting scholars who produce whether implicitly or explicitly, for all other races and cultures this work (Kearse, 2021). In effect, the current reaction against (see Scheurich & Young, 1997). Research titles offer one critical race theory illustrates the cultural pervasiveness of example of this phenomenon. Across social sciences, in re- whiteness. Next, I describe assumptions of critical whiteness search of White populations, “White” rarely appears in titles. studies (CWS) and contextualize whiteness in psychology. Racial markers are typically included in titles only when studies report on communities of color (Jordan et al., 2021). This effect is not unique to psychology, as whiteness is Contextualizing Whiteness foundational to U.S. institutions and systems (Walsdorf et al., CWS is transdisciplinary and grounded in critical race theory, 2020). Unique, however, is that psychological evidence has to interrogate the function of whiteness in society and how been used as a mechanism to justify exclusionary and harmful persons internalize, embody, and enact whiteness (Matias, policies and practices (Teo, 2011). To disrupt the transmission 2016). Whiteness scholars distinguish between hegemonic and reproduction of hegemonic whiteness and its underlying whiteness and White people, recognizing whiteness as micro-, consequences for psychology, we must first acknowledge the meso-, and macro-level phenomena. While whiteness prevalence of whiteness (Schooley et al., 2019). 114 Teaching of Psychology 50(2) Critical Whiteness in Psychology discuss differences in coding, focus groups, and observations. Interracial interactions are influential in increasing awareness Whiteness remains under-explored in the psychological sci- of racism in society (Neville et al., 2013). However, for these ences. For the past 40 years, psychologists have investigated, interactions to be successful, the groups must cooperate in tested, and measured its varying dimensions (Schooley et al., pursuit of common goals, equal status, and support (Neville 2019; see also, Helms, 2017). Though not exhaustive, topics et al., 2013), and they should be facilitated by an instructor have included White racial identity development (Helms, who is comfortable and adept at leading difficult dialogues 1990), White racialized attitudes (Carter et al., 2004), (Adams et al., 2007). Resources and principles for instructors White allyship (Spanierman & Smith, 2017b), and more re- facilitating difficult conversations are publicly available on cently, the whiteness of the discipline (e.g., Coleman et al., Open Science Framework (Jordan, 2021). 2020; Grzanka et al., 2019; Spanierman & Smith, 2017a). One reported challenge in these interactions is White Simultaneously, scholars have noted the challenges encoun- students and professors unconsciously assigning BIPOC tered when White psychologists do critical whiteness studies students the role of “teacher,” “expert,” or “spokesperson” on (see the journal The Counseling Psychologist, 1993, Issue 2), race and racism (Mwangi et al., 2018). The instructor can pointing to the difficulty of transgressing epistemological address this by preparing students to personalize their own whiteness (Helms, 2017). These critiques noted White scholars’ experiences and use research methods to engage in collective tendency to frame racism as a problem for non-White others, meaning-making about the whiteness. Instructors should be rather than recognizing it as a symptom of whiteness (Helms, vigilant about emotions that may arise during discussions and 2017; Sue, 2017). The authors described how White scholars guide students to be accountable for their own emotions. favor the language of multiculturalism, thereby minimizing the “differential power of Whiteness” (Helms, 2017, p. 721). Given the centrality of whiteness within research and Setting the Stage psychology, centering whiteness might appear antithetical to I developed the following activities for use in masters-level addressing racism. However, surfacing whiteness can assist in Research Methods and doctoral-level Qualitative Inquiry developing a more inclusive field. The processes of decon- courses. Situating the courses, the initial weeks review the structing whiteness are manifold and complex—much bigger philosophical assumptions of research traditions, incorporat- than one activity or article. However, one step in this direction ing ontology, epistemology, and methodology. We discuss the is to teach students to recognize whiteness. The activities pre- concept of researcher positionality (Levitt et al., 2020; Milner sented in this article expose students to three aspects of whiteness IV, 2007), integrating it into larger discussions of ethics and as culture (invisible, normed whiteness), ideological whiteness rigor. Opening research classes in this way lays the ground- (colorblind racism), and behavioral whiteness (racial micro- work for students’ reflexive engagement in contemplating aggressions). By incorporating qualitative methods, the activ- whiteness. ities also address potentially overlooked skills in training. I typically teach classes of 18–20 students of diverse social and racialized locations. Classes meet for 3 h each week, structured by an initial review of the readings, followed by an Incorporating CWS in Research Methods experiential activity, and concluding with a guided discussion. The literature notes that White students often respond to To consolidate learning and encourage critical reflection, teaching about whiteness with pushback, anger, discomfort, students maintain a semester-long researcher’s journal, one and avoidance (DiAngelo, 2018; Evans-Winters & Hines, aspect of reflexive inquiry. They are expected to write re- 2020; Matias & Mackey, 2016). To preempt this, the instructor flexive statements that bring together their subjective re- can discuss emotions that may emerge to normalize students’ sponses to the material for the week. I instruct them to reactions while challenging them to push through these reference the weekly activity, incorporating the course read- emotions (Matias & Mackey, 2016). Furthermore, BIPOC ings, and discussion, and include remaining questions about professors routinely report that when teaching for social the content and process and their suggestions for further justice, they experience racism, described by scholars as racial learning. battle fatigue (Pizarro & Kohli, 2020). The deleterious expe- These activities are easily adjusted for differing course riences described by BIPOC faculty are one justification for structures or content areas. For example, video clips presented introducing topics such as whiteness throughout the curriculum. to large undergraduate classes allow students to make ob- When each faculty member models the importance of teaching servations without leaving the classroom. Given the range of about race and racism, it communicates to students that these possibilities, next I present the basic structure of each activity, issues are not solely the responsibility of persons of color. accompanied by suggestions for readings, videos, and tem- Ideally, small group assignments should reflect racial and plates. Notably, these activities are not intended only for White ethnic diversity to engage students in perspective-taking when students, as whiteness is an ideology that impacts us all. I they Jordan 115 follow the activities with brief reflections of experiences guided observations reportedly facilitated using the structure White and racialized students have shared with me. of theory as a resource that strengthened students’ confidence in data collection. Students described that theory application helped them shift to systematic observation and field note Activity 1: Observing the Field: Whiteness as Culture discussion. Observational data collection is a method wherein systematic observations of people and interactions can provide rich Activity 2: Uncovering Colorblind Racism contextualization, discernment of processes and patterns, and novel understandings of cultures and social issues (Angrosino, Through Photovoice 2007). In research courses, observation activities experien- Photovoice is a participatory methodology that engages tially engage students as they acquire data collection skills participants in photo documentation to evidence the impact of (Fontes & Piercy, 2000). The goal of this exercise is for social issues. Utilizing photographs taken by participants, data students to surface whiteness the culture of whiteness while collection frequently proceeds through focus groups (Sutton- gaining practical skills and learning to incorporate theory into Brown, 2014; Wang & Burris, 1997). Incorporating critical research. See Katz (2003) for an expanded discussion of whiteness with photovoice focus groups can address the concept whiteness as culture. of colorblind racism (see Bonilla-Silva, 2017 for core definitions Before class, students learn about observation and field and frameworks). Whereas activity 1 asked students to reflect on notes as a research method as well as whiteness as culture (see social processes, this activity engenders critical reflexivity Jordan, 2021 for online supplemental readings and templates). (Finlay, 2012; Mauthner & Doucet, 2003; Watt, 2007). During class, small groups of students are assigned to different Before class, students review materials on each topic, and locations on campus to conduct systematic observations. The document their responses to previously provided prompts instructor should choose locations that will facilitate ob- creating two photos and captions for each (see Jordan, 2021 serving multiple people, such as bus stops or cafeterias. for readings, templates, and prompts). Students email the Students go into the field to sit at various focal points recording instructor their images and captions, which are printed for observations without interacting for 10 minutes. They then return class. Students are divided into groups of 6–8; a volunteer to class to compare findings and analyze differences and sim- becomes the facilitator, and each group receives copies of their ilarities in their groups. Next, the instructor leads a discussion images. Following methods learned through assigned readings, about the differences in students’ observations to illustrate how the facilitator guides the group in contextualizing the images our assumptions drive what we attend to in research. and a follow-up group discussion. The activity takes 1.5– The next exercise incorporates guided observation. Fo- 2 hours. The last hour of class comprises a large-group dis- cusing on how observations become data collection guided by cussion about personal reactions to the focus groups, the utility theory, the class addresses the research question, “How does of photo elicitation in interviews, and vulnerability in research. whiteness influence interactions on a college campus?” To- Overall, students found the photovoice process a chal- gether, the class develops a list of ten significant character- lenging but highly effective method of increasing awareness istics of whiteness, incorporating previous readings as a on multiple levels. Group facilitators described challenges framework to contemplate possible social “norms” as dictated such as not knowing when to intervene, how to handle lulls, by whiteness. Students return to the field for 40 minutes, maintaining a researcher stance, and moving beyond general directing observations with these characteristics. Then, they to probing questions. White student participants shared that work in their groups to develop a tentative response to the they were anxious while describing their images, for fear of research question, discussing how observational data can help making a mistake or sounding racist. BIPOC students de- to contextualize theory. In doctoral training, an observational scribed their own anxiety about being asked to express ideas assignment follows this exercise, where students spend an that might otherwise be silenced. These anxieties opened the extended period at a field site of their choice, incorporating group discussion to deeper reflections on the challenge of critical race (Delgado & Stefancic, 2017) and critical white- talking about race openly in diverse groups and enhanced ness (Matias, 2016) into data collection. students’ understanding of how participants might feel in their White students shared that as the concept of whiteness own research. According to BIPOC students, thinking in became more tangible, they began to consider how their images, instead of words, aided reflections on the socialization presence in the field affected those they observed. They also processes of colorblind racism. Bringing in images, such as suggested the focus on social processes helped them under- textbooks authored by only White scholars, externalized their stand whiteness without feeling overly defensive. BIPOC experiences in such a way that White students were able to students described that this process helped them highlight how acknowledge the pervasiveness of colorblind ideology. In my they view interactions without having to speak from lived observations of students, I recognized that White students experience, easing the burden often placed on racialized might have difficulty in personalizing their experiences of students. Overall, this activity effectively engages students’ colorblind racism, defaulting to intellectualization. By fo- awareness of the self in research. Shifting from undirected to cusing on the photograph, students had a place to focus as they 116 Teaching of Psychology 50(2) constructively challenge each other. Connecting their ideas to experience of racism in terms such as “othering” and “color- readings enables students to model disagreement with ideas blind racism.” Other students felt challenged engaging in rather than individuals. constructive dialogue about difficult topics but appreciated that whiteness was both universalized and personalized as a phe- nomenon all students experience. I experienced my own mo- Activity 3: Coding for Racial Microaggressions ments of anxiety and challenge when BIPOC students Coding is the indexing or categorization of text to establish a described never experiencing racism or in deconstructing thematic framework of manifest and latent meanings within White students’ feeling that the topics provoked “anti-White data (Saldaña, 2021). Learning fundamental coding methods racism.” Through multiple iterations, students softened to the introduces students to basic analysis, differences between idea of whiteness as culture, which is possibly an indicator of deductive and inductive reasoning, and the concept of ana- growing public awareness of systemic racism (Okech & lytical interpretation (Saldaña, 2021). Incorporating critical Essof, 2021). Students described feeling “hopeful” in whiteness with coding can also reveal how whiteness and learning different research methods and theories that chal- colorblind racism are behaviorally expressed through mi- lenge social injustices. croaggressions (see Sue et al., 2007). Goals for this activity Across psychology, topics such as whiteness are often de- include learning basic coding while observing how micro- emphasized in research courses (Motulsky et al., 2014). Educators aggressions occur in interviews (research or clinical). may assume these topics are addressed elsewhere, focusing instead To prepare for this activity, students read methodological on producing objective, independent observers who minimize literature on coding and empirical literature on micro- investigator effects (Levitt et al., 2020). Qualitative research aggressions before class (see Jordan, 2021 for readings and is also marginalized, regardless that many find it a promising worked example). In class, students are guided through de- method to address issues of diversity and injustice, leaving ductive and inductive coding processes as they work from a Rubin et al. (2018) to suggest “if qualitative methods are seen transcribed interaction, either collected from an interview, as the ‘best’ tool to study diversity, it is also clear how issues therapy session, or television program. The transcript should of diversity may not be taken seriously and may also be be long enough for discerning adequate examples of micro- regarded as illegitimate within psychology” (p. 14). Adopting a aggressions and brief enough to read and code in class (ap- critical lens, the consequences of research for the communities proximately two pages). we study imply that methods courses should attend to social During coding, Sue et al. (2007) racial microaggression issues, such as whiteness. This focus can strengthen when we typologies serve as a priori codes (e.g., deductive coding). also engage the researcher self in applying critical theory (Levitt Deductive coding is followed by inductive in vivo coding et al., 2021). Developing this knowledge can deepen students’ (e.g., coding with participants’ language). Throughout this critical consciousness and overall potential to work for social exercise, students produce analytic memos noting ongoing change. thoughts and questions about the data. Next, they work in small groups to develop a codebook and begin grouping codes Author’s Note into initial categories. Then a large-group discussion brings in Across the expanse of time immemorial, many Nations and peoples points of inter-coder reliability, making note of the re- created sacred legacies on the land where the University of Arkansas was searcher’s role in analytic interpretations and the complexity founded. I respectfully acknowledge the Osage, Caddo, and Quapaw of analysis. Nations, who involuntarily left this ancestral land. I also acknowledge the One challenge in this activity is of students being over- Cherokee, Muscogee Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole Na- whelmed by inductive coding. However, students expressed tions forced through this land on the Trail of Tears. Hara aha i te tangata enthusiasm for the freedom of inductive coding through mohio ki te korero otira e tika ana kia mihi atu kia mihi mai systematic application of theory as they comprehend it. Some students struggled to discern microaggressions, providing the Data Availability Statement opportunity to discuss the epistemological distraction of All materials used in the manuscript are openly available for download. whiteness from understanding the experiences of others. The materials can be accessed through the following anonymous link: Discussing students’ differential experiences of coding for https://osf.io/kwef4/?view_only=71d75c7515fb42e28b895de422d0f17a. microaggressions brings to the fore the analyst’s subjective position. Declaration of Conflicting Interests Interrogating whiteness in the psychological sciences is challenging due to the negative emotions that learning about The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to whiteness evokes (Evans-Winters & Hines, 2020). The three the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. activities described in this article are one step in helping stu- dents recognize societal, ideological, and behavioral whiteness. Funding Some BIPOC students described moments of clarity. For ex- The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, ample, one student learned, academic terminology for the lived and/or publication of this article. Jordan 117 ORCID iD Feagin, J. R. (2020). The white racial frame: Centuries of racial framing and counter-framing. Routledge. Lorien S. Jordan  https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1018-3683 Finlay, L. (2012). Five lenses for the reflexive interviewer. In J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A.B. 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