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GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Week 2 The Individual and the Group Theories on why people join a group...

GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Week 2 The Individual and the Group Theories on why people join a group 1. Interpersonal Attraction Theory: holds on the Introduction to Group Dynamics proximity contact, interaction, physical attractiveness and similarities Group: has been defined as an organized system of 2 2. Group Activities Theory: proposes that a person or more individuals who are interrelated so that the jois a group because he enjoys. system performs a function, has a structured 3. Group Goal Theory: values its goals relationship among its members and has sets of norms 4. Membership Theory: affiliation that regulate the function of the group and that of its members. Goals or Purpose of Group Dynamics A recognized psychological tools Group Process: is the study of group interaction through 1. Experience ourselves extensive personal growth experience. A group may 2. Knowing ourselves exist whenever two or more person show kind of 3. Exploring potentials “I’m glad I am me” interdependent relationship with one another. Variables Affecting Group Development Group Dynamics: refers to the forces that result from the 1. Leadership Style and Skills: this is the ability to interaction of group members. persuade the group member to change and ★ a term introduced by Kurt Lewin reflect the leadership style. He developed the idea that training in 2. Environment: it consists of physical factors, human relations skills was an important space, room and emotional factors. and essential aspects for human 3. Cohesiveness: the sense of “we-ness” growth and development. - the first so-called “ T group” Group Goal and Individual Goal Group Dynamic Games: it is an experiential education Group Goal exercises which assists people to understand the ★ it is the role of the leader to facilitate and assist interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships between in establishing goals by group members. Group two people or between groups. goals can be accompanied by: 1. Allowing members to share their own Types of Group Dynamic Games assessment of their group process. 1. Dancing: French word “danser” 2. Individual members must objectively 2. Ice Breaker or Unfreezing give accurate feedback of group 3. Psychodrama: a form of drama therapy activities. principle on single participants using the following principle: Individual Goals a. Role playing ★ these are personal goals of the members. An b. Mirror effective leader can follow this suggestions: c. Soliloquy 1. Invite members to share things learned d. Sociometry from the sessions they have 4. Electronic Media: videogame which players participated. can interact. 2. Request new member “ to tell something about himself” 3. Persuade others to explore their problems and areas of difficulty. 1 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Norms: are sets of standards that govern the way in which members behavior are judged. This is associated with works such as “ought” and “should” Categories of Norms 1. Explicit Norms: formal norms that all members are fully aware of and stated at the beginning of the group. 2. Implicit Norms: informal norms, not formally stated but involve standard practice by members of the group which can elicit positive and negative reactions. Enhancement of Self-Esteem is Everyone’s Potential Various Aspects of Group Process A group refers to two or more persons engaged in any kind of relationships. A group is dynamic social; entity composed of two or more individuals. When two members disagree with a third member (triad) the group is called “coalition” 2 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Week 3 informal groups merge spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups. The Nature of Group Dynamics 1. Command Groups: Command groups are Stages of Group Development specified by the organizational chart and often There is a process of five stages through which consist of a supervisor and the subordinates groups pass through. The process includes the five that report to that supervisor. An example of a stages: forming, storming, forming, performing, and command group is a market research firm CEO adjourning. and the research associates under him. 1. Forming: The first stage in the life of a group is 2. Task Groups: Task groups consist of people who concerned with forming a group. This stage is work together to achieve a common task. characterized by members seeking either a Members are brought together to accomplish work assignment (in a formal group) or other a narrow range of goals within a specified time benefit, like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an period. Task groups are also commonly referred informal group). Members at this stage either to as task forces. The organization appoints engage in busy type of activity or show members and assigns the goals and tasks to be apathy. accomplished. 2. Storming The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members Examples of assigned tasks are the seek out familiar or similar individuals and begin development of a new product, the a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention improvement of a production process, or to the subgroup creates a differentiation in the designing the syllabus under semester system. group and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear. Pairing is a common Other common task groups are ad hoc phenomenon. There will be conflict about committees, project groups, and standing controlling the group. committees. Ad hoc committees are 3. Norming: The third stage of group temporary groups created to resolve a specific development is marked by a more serious complaint or develop a process are normally concern about task performance. The disbanded after the group completes the dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out assigned task. other members in the group. Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance. 3. Functional Groups: A functional group is 4. Performing: This is a stage of a fully functional created by the organization to accomplish group where members see themselves as a specific goals within an unspecified time frame. group and get involved in the task. Each Functional groups remain in existence after person makes a contribution and the authority achievement of current goals and objectives. figure is also seen as a part of the group. Group Examples of functional groups would be a norms are followed and collective pressure is marketing department, a customer service exerted to ensure the Process of Group department, or an accounting department. effectiveness of the group. 5. Adjourning Roles within Groups ★ Initiator: Takes initiative in defining problems, Types of Groups proposing action, and suggesting procedures. One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal. While formal groups are ★ Informer: Finding facts and giving advice or established by an organization to achieve its goals, opinions. 3 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo ★ Interpreter: Interprets ideas, define terms, and clarify issues. ★ Summarizer: Restates suggestions, offers decisions, and comes to conclusions. ★ Reality Taster: Analyzes ideas and tests the ideas in real situations. ★ Harmoniser: Reduces tension in the group, reconciles differences, and explores opportunities. ★ Gatekeeper: Keeps communication channels open and makes suggestions that encourage participation. ★ Consensus tester: Asks if the group is nearing a decision and tests possible conclusions. ★ Encourager: Being friendly, warm, and responsive to other group members. ★ Compromiser: Modifies decisions, offers compromises, and admits errors. ★ Aggressor: Criticizes members' values and makes jokes in a sarcastic, derogatory, or semi-concealed manner. ★ Blocker: Stubbornly resists the group's ideas, disagrees with group members for personal reasons. ★ Dominator: Controls conversations by patronizing others. ★ Comedian: Attention-getters in ways not relevant to group's objectives. ★ Avoidance Behaviour: Pursuing goals not related to the group and changing the subject to avoid commitment to the group. 4 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Week 4 Many, often temporary Few, close and enduring; or casual; confrontation harmony valued Personal Identity to Social Identity acceptable Behavior reflects one’s Behavior reflects social Individualism vs Collectivism personality and attitudes norms and roles Background On Developing Self Theory: Individualism-Collectivism Model ★ People in individualist cultures might raise ★ Used to explain large amounts of variation seen children to be self-reliant and independent. in human behavior, social interaction, and ★ People in collectivist cultures might raise personality children to be compliant, obedient, and ★ Explain differences in people and/or groups integrated into webs of mutual support. ★ People in Asian and African cultures might raise How? children to be more emotionally and physically ★ Collectivist Cultures: individual needs, desires, close to others than in western European etc. are secondary to those of the group (Asia) cultures. ★ Individualistic Cultures: Higher value on the needs and accomplishments of the individual West and East rather than the group (United States) Independence Interdependence Eastern and Western Influences on Development of Self ★ Individualist cultures value independence. They - Develop early - Learn to depend on promote personal ideals, strengths, and goals, independence others pursued in competition with others, leading to individual achievement and finding a unique - Express yourself - Read nonverbal cues identity. - Responsible for self - Listen to authority ★ Collectivist cultures value interdependence. They promote group and societal goals and - Live on one’s own - Be responsible for others duties, and blending in with group identity, with achievement attributed to mutual support. - One’s own goals take - Personal goals priority secondary to goals of the group - Motivated by own Individualism Collectivism preferences, needs , - Motivated by the norms rights of, and duties imposed Independent (identity Interdependent (identity by, the group from individual traits) from belonging) - Tasks more important than relationships - Relationships more Discover and express Maintain connections, fit important than tasks one’s uniqueness in, perform role - Cognitive skills independent of social - Social and cognitive Me–personal Us–group goals ad skills skills integrated Westby achievement and solidarity; social (2009) fulfillment; rights and responsibilities and liberties; self-esteem relationships; family duty Change reality Accommodate to reality Defined by individuals Defined by social (self-based) networks (duty-based) 5 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Cautions in Defining Individualistic and Collectivistic “Conclusions about collectivist and individualistic cultures shouldn’t be overly sweeping and must be carefully applied to selective, specific behaviors, situations, and cultures.” 6 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Week 4 Factors Affecting Group Activity 1. Size of the group Group Dynamics 2. Threat reduction and degree of intimacy: removal of the element of uncertainty or Various Aspects of Group Process surprises. Group is affected by the ff: 3. Distributive leadership with focus of control on 1. Satisfaction group activity: the absence of stress and 2. Problem tension will develop trust and confidence. 3. Influence upon others 4. Each member influencing each other 4. Goal Formation: share purposes and aspirations 5. Cohesiveness 6. Comparability 5. Flexibility: adaptable to the needs of the group. 7. Norms: adherence to uniform pattern of behavior of the group 6. Consensus and degree of solidarity: everyone is 8. Morale: optimistic feelings given a chance to express their views. 9. Social climate: emotional atmosphere 10. Reference group: any group that has a 7. Process awareness and continue evaluation: normative effect on behavior or standard of there must be an increasing sensitivity to the the group roles and the needs of different members. Types of Group Involvement Psychological Methods Used in Group Activity Session 1. Primary group: greater degree of personal 1. Psychoanalytic Method: Freud held that all involvement, informal. behavior is determined or caused by some 2. Secondary group: formal and lesser degree of factors which an individual is totally unaware personal involvement. of. 3. Exclusive group: membership is limited to a certain class of individuals. 2. Behavioristic and Learning Theories: the group 4. Inclusive group: greater interaction with the believed that people can be trained to live context of equalization in society. effectively through the application of 5. “In” group or “we” group: strong feelings of conditioning principles to the individual and loyalty, sympathy and devotion society. 6. “our group or “they” group: more detached and less cohesive. 3. Existentialism: the emphasis on man’s freedom and choice or from the standpoint of the free Purpose of Group Formation will and his responsibility for his judgment and 1. Accidental or Voluntary: beyond the control action. and not all deliberated 2. Task-oriented or Social Function: 4. Humanistic Approach: the humanistic a. to accomplish job approach emphasizes that individuals have b. developed in order to enhance much potentials within them and it is society’s human interaction or improved responsibility to encourage its development interpersonal relationship while interfering as little as possible with its expression. 7 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo 5. Field Theory: It emphasizes the need to understand the subjective experience of the person and likewise applies the need to rethink the typical manner of understanding that causes of behavior being observed. The Self-Awareness Model 1 2 open/free blind area area 3 4 hidden area unknown area 1. what is known by the person about him/herself and is also known by others - open area, open self, free area, free self, or 'the arena' 2. what is unknown by the person about him/herself but which others know - blind area, blind self, or 'blindspot' 3. what the person knows about him/herself that others do not know -hidden area, hidden self, avoided area, avoided self or 'facade' 4. what is unknown by the person about him/herself and is also unknown by others -unknown area or unknown self 8 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Additional Readings Types of Therapy Groups ★ Growth Groups Leading Growth and Counseling Groups ★ Self-Help Groups ★ Unique power of groups INTRODUCTION ★ Importance of disclosing emotions ★ Leading growth and therapy groups In addition to solving a problem or completing ★ Conceptualizing, feelings, intuition an assignment, groups also can func- tion as a means ★ Becoming a facilitator ★ Growth groups and anxiety, costs of helping individuals grow and change in constructive ★ Costs of participating in groups ways. A wide variety of therapeutic groups aim at ★ Comparative effectiveness achieving many different personal growth goals. What they have in common is an emphasis on members Goals improving their psychological health, happiness, effectiveness, and competence. Growth, counseling, and self-help groups have similar, overlapping goals. Although the diversity of A number of therapeutic events promote the groups in each area precludes a complete listing of achievement of these personal growth goals. goals applicable to all, generally these groups seek Individuals may change by themselves in isolation from goals such as: others, by working one on one with a counselor, therapist, minister, or friend, or by participating in small 1. Decreasing self-defeating patterns and increasing groups, such as growth, counseling, or therapy groups. self-enhancing patterns of behavior and attitudes. Groups, however, have several unique powers that Many individuals have developed behavior patterns make them the ideal setting for personal change. In this and attitudes that create and sustain negative and chapter the therapeutic power of groups will be self-destructive consequences and ultimately lead to a discussed, along with the conditions under which more painful and troubled life. They may join groups to therapeutic events may be promoted. identify these self-defeating and self-destructive patterns and change them to patterns that promote TYPES OF THERAPEUTIC GROUPS the ability to maintain themselves, grow, and flourish. Millions of Americans have participated or are 2. Increasing psychological health and decreasing participating in groups aimed at per- sonal growth, psychological pathology. Psychological health is the therapeutic change, or self-help (Figure 1). Growth ability to be aware of and manage effectively one's groups focus on emo- tional growth, improved interdependent interactions with others (Johnson, interpersonal relationships, and group skills. They include 1980b, Johnson & Johnson,1989). Feelings such as T-groups, encounter groups, human relations training depression, anxiety, or anger and problems interacting groups, and structured growth groups. Counseling and appropriately with others in family or work situations therapy groups focus on increased psychological may drive people to seek help in groups. adjustment and health. They include psychoanalytic groups, Adlerian groups, psychodrama groups, Gestalt 3. Increasing the ability to build and maintain groups, cognitive-behavioral groups, existential groups, humanizing relationships. Human- izing relationships person-centered groups, rational-emotive groups, reflect the qualities of empathy, kindness, compassion, reality groups, and interpersonal therapy groups. con- sideration, mercy, love, responsiveness, and Self-help groups focus on overcoming or coping with friendship. life stresses, such as addiction or illness. An enormous number of self-help groups can be found in our society. 4. Increasing self-actualization. Self-actualization is the psychological need for growth, development, and 9 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo utilization of potential (Maslow, 1954). A self- actualizing Training Laboratories for Applied Behavioral Science in person moves toward the full use of his or her talents, Bethel, Maine, and Washington, D.C. capacities, and potentialities. Self-actualization involves both self-development and self- utilization: One T-groups originated from an accident that develops potentialities and then uses them in order to occurred in the presence of Kurt Lewin, who was quick actualize oneself. to appreciate the potential utility of what was taking place (Marrow, 1969). In 1946, Lewin was asked to 5. Increasing interpersonal effectiveness. Interpersonal conduct a workshop to explore the use of small groups effectiveness is the ex- tent to which the consequences to train community facilitators to strengthen of a person's behavior match his or her in- tentions democracy at the grass- roots level. The participants (Johnson, 2006), When two participants interact, for were educators, public officials, and social scientists. example, they are seeking to achieve certain They met in small groups focused on the development consequences. When their behavior results in the of democratic facilitators. The small groups were consequences they want, their interpersonal observed by several of Lewin's graduate students (one effectiveness is high, when the consequences are not of whom was Morton Deutsch), who met in the what they want, their interpersonal effectiveness is low. evenings to discuss the dynamics of the group Interpersonal effectiveness depends on mastering discussions they had observed during the day. One interpersonal and small group skills. All the group skills evening, two of the par- ticipants asked if they could sit discussed in this text and the in- terpersonal skills in and listen while the graduate students discussed their discussed in Johnson (2006) are relevant to observations. Much to everyone's surprise, Lewin said, interpersonal effectiveness. "Yes." By chance, the observers were discussing an episode that involved one of these participants. As the Participants in growth, therapy, or self-help groups, and discussion progressed, the participant became more the group's facilitator have a set of goals for the group. and more agitated until she interrupted and disagreed If the goals of the participants and those of the group with the observers' interpretations. She then proceeded facilita- tor do not completely overlap, the two must to give her version of the episode, which led to a negotiate a set of goals they can mutually commit discussion that proved to be both in- volving and themselves to achieving. enlightening. The next night, all fifty of the participants showed up and enthusiastically joined in the discussion, Growth Groups frequently disagreeing with and clarifying the interpretations of the trained observers. The participants Growth groups take advantage of the benefits had sources of informa- tion not available to the of small groups by bringing people into contact with observers-namely, the participants' intentions. one another in order to develop interpersonal skills and personal insights that lead to more satisfactory Lewin and his students grasped the significance relationships in all parts of the participants' lives. The of the evening discussions. They concluded that a improvement of the group skills discussed in this text is group engaged in a problem-solving discussion can an example of a goal of growth groups. benefit enormously by taking time out to discuss its own dynamics, or group process. After a time, what evolved T-Groups. Broadly speaking, the term T-group was a group whose purpose was to study its own (sometimes known as laboratory- training or development and dynamics. The initial name, sensitivity-training group) refers to groups whose primary sensitivity-training (as the experience sensitized emphasis is on studying the development of the group participants to the impact of their behavior on others), and the relationships among group members (Watson or laboratory-training groups, was eventually short- & Johnson, 1972). The primary source of information for ened to training group and then to T-group. After learning is the behav- ior of the group members Lewin's death in 1947, the National Training Laboratory themselves. The discussions focus on what is happening of Applied Behavioral Science (NTL) was organized by in the group. T-groups are associated with the National Lewin's colleagues and students at the Research 10 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Center for Group Dynamics, the National Education one another "authentically" by displaying their true Association, and the Office of Naval Research. emotions, thoughts, and worries. The facilitator displays unconditional positive regard and helps participants Generally, participants in a T-group learn about experience and express their intense feelings. Role the way they interact with others while providing playing and other exercises may be used to help leadership, making group decisions, striving to influence participants experience and express feelings such as what the group does, resolving conflicts, setting group caring, loneliness, helplessness, and anger. In encounter norms, and so forth. They also learn how others see groups, individuals are encouraged to explain their them, how their behavior affects the other participants, present behavior in terms of past experiences and to and how they are affected by other participants' seek healing for past hurts. actions. They learn how to communicate more effectively, how to understand their own feelings and Human Relations Training Groups. Human relations the feelings of other people, and how to build and training groups focus on increasing members' maintain relationships with others. Many times competence in interacting effectively with individuals participants seek answers to specific questions: "Why do from diverse eth- nic and cultural backgrounds. Small I have difficulties getting along with other people?" groups with members from diverse backgrounds study "Why is it so hard for me to make friends?" "How can I their own interactions and work to build effective handle my anger?" "Why do I have such difficulty relationships with one another. In human relations trusting people?" "Why am I so powerless in most training groups, interactions among diverse individuals groups?" and so forth. may be experienced and studied simultaneously. Group members tend to develop insights into cultural The use of T-groups has proved popular for differences and the ways in which constructive several reasons: They use an inductive method of relationships among di- verse individuals may be built teaching group dynamics, they involve learning and maintained. through experience, and they generate personal learning and emotional experiences by examining the Structured Growth Groups. Structured growth groups interaction among members. T-groups probably were focus on specific interpersonal problems or skills. used most frequently in the 1960s, and today, T-groups Exercises may be used to help participants practice the are a key component of many companies and targeted behaviors and skills. Assertiveness training, organizations' human resources departments (Burke & which focuses on teaching individuals the difference Day, 1986). between being aggressive, passive, and assertive, is an example. All of the ex- ercises discussed here are The traditional difference between T-groups examples of structured growth exercises. Countless and counseling groups (discussed in the next section) is organiza- tions all over the world use structured growth that in a T-group the facilitator and the other groups in their workshops and seminars. participants do not attempt to interpret participants' motives or probe their past experiences. Instead, they Counseling and Therapy Groups focus on behavior in the group and reactions of the other participants to the behavior. Psychoanalytic Groups. Psychoanalytic groups focus on the inner conflicts underlying psychological Encounter Groups. The distinction between T-groups problems. Sigmund Freud, one of the originators of the and counseling groups became blurred in the 1960s psychoanalytic method, believed that most people with the advent of encounter groups. Promoted by avoid confronting their conflicts by repressing them. psychothera- pists such as Carl Rogers (1970b), During psychoanalytic group sessions, therefore, encounter groups emphasized participants accepting participants are encouraged to discuss their memories, and trusting their feelings, accepting their most fears, fantasies, and dreams in order to gain insight into personal qualities, and being more open in interacting their unconscious. The group facilitator may offer with others. Participants are encouraged to encounter interpretations of the participants' free associations to 11 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo promote insights. Facilitators also may take advantage of transference, the tendency of participants to transfer Gestalt Group Therapy. Fritz Perls (1969), who generally the emotions they feel for their parents to the therapist, is recognized as the founder of Gestalt therapy, to determine the root cause of a particular issue or emphasized (a) the integration of mind and body; (b) problem. increased clarity about one's wants, values, and goals; (c) greater awareness of oneself, especially one's Various schools of psychoanalytical thought feelings and one's impact on others; and (d) the exist, based on the specific theories of various resolution or completion of unfinished business. A psychotherapists and theorists. In Freudian groups, for person is not fully functioning until past experiences are example, the therapist dominates, working with each resolved in some way. These experiences could include participant while the other group members observe. interpersonal conflicts that still upset, the death of a Jungian groups, on the other hand, may focus more on relative or friend that still hurts, or a past failure that still dreams. sparks regret. Generally, the problems are unresolved because individuals repress their emotions. For people Adlerian Group Psychotherapy. Alfred Adler contended to reach their potential, they have to complete their that people often feel inferior in regard to others unfinished business by getting in touch with their because of children's early recognition of their feelings and resolving their interpersonal problems. In dependence on adults. That feeling of inferiority many cases, resolving a problem is difficult because the motivates them to strive for mastery, superiority, power, other person (such as a parent) has died. To solve such and, ultimately, perfection. He believed that social problems and to uncover repressed feelings, Perls forces primarily motivate people as they search for recommends procedures such as the empty-chair significance in their lives. Thus, people's neuroses are method, in which the participant imagines his or her determined by social factors and are best cured in parent sitting in the empty chair and has a social contexts, such as therapy groups. Striving to conversation with the imagined person. Another overcome inferiority results in a move toward procedure is the reversal experiment, in which a cooperative social living to overcome aloneness and person's role plays a side of him or herself rarely or never weakness (Richardson & Manaster, 1997). expressed. Other Adlerian theorists have outlined four Perls viewed therapy as a process by which stages of group counseling to help people overcome negative identifications with signifi- cant others are their feelings of inferiority. The steps are building replaced with positive identification with the therapist. cohesion, assessing each member's psychological The facilitator of a Gestalt therapy group works with health and functioning, helping each member increase one member at a time, with the other members. self-understanding and gain insights, and helping each observing the process. One by one, each participant is member reorient him or her- self by seeing new ways of placed in the "hot seat" and works through his or her behaving and new choices that may be made unfinished business. (Sonstegard, Dreikurs, & Bitter, 1982; Sonstegard & Bitter, 1998). Cognitive-Behavioral Group Psychotherapy. Cognitive-behavioral group psy- chotherapy applies Psychodrama. Moreno (1932/1953) developed therapy the behavior theories of Skinner (1953, 1971) and the groups in which participants acted out past emotional social learning theories of Bandura (1976, 2006) to experiences as psychodramas. His psychodrama theory engineer changes in behavior without concern for the is based on two assumptions. First, he believed origins of the ineffective actions or the psychodynamics physically acting out traumatic past events is more of the person. Individuals decide how they wish to involved than a passive discussion of them. Second, he change, and through procedures such as modeling, believed that the dramatic enactment helps group rehearsal, feedback, and reinforcement, they develop members overcome their reluctance to discuss intimate more effective behavioral patterns. Group members and upsetting issues. 12 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo learn self-management skills to control their lives and An irrational assumption is a belief that makes you deal effectively with problems (Watson & Tharp, 1997). depressed, anxious, or upset most of the time. An example of such an irrational assumption is "I must be Existential Group Psychotherapy. Existential group loved, liked, and approved of by everyone all the time psychotherapy helps participants confront the basic or I will be absolutely miserable and will feel totally "givens" or ultimate concerns of existence: death worthless." Obviously, everyone will not love you all the (conflict between the awareness of the inevitability of time, and therefore, this assumption inevitably results in death and the wish to continue to bel, freedom depression and disappointment. To combat such an (conflict between groundlessness and desire for irrational assumption, a person must (a) become aware structure), existential isolation (conflict between of the irrational assumption being made and (b) awareness of one's absolute isolation and the wish for engage in an internal debate to replace it with a new, protection, closeness, and desire to be a part of the more constructive one. larger whole), and meaninglessness (conflict between the apparent meaninglessness of life and the desire for Reality Group Psychotherapy. Reality therapy is based a life with meaning). on the assumptions that (a) humans are motivated to fulfill their basic needs for survival, love and belong- ing, Existential therapy assumes that all individuals power, freedom, and fun and (b) each person chooses are free to choose what to make of their circumstances how to fulfill these needs in his or her current and, therefore, are responsible for their choices and relationships (Glasser, 1998). The emphasis is on actions. Each person is the architect of his or her life. controlling one's own behavior to better meet one's Group members are encouraged to take respon- sibility needs in one's current relationships. Thus, in the group, for their lives, rather than being passive victims of members talk about their current behavior and how to circumstances. They are helped to discover alternative become more effective. Group members explore their ways of dealing with their problems so they can choose needs, examine the effectiveness of their current the path they wish to follow, thus becoming the authors behavior in meeting their needs, identify the aspects of of their lives. In doing so, they resolve their concerns their behavior they wish to change, and plan how to about death, freedom, isolation, and meaning. do so. Person-Centered Group Psychotherapy. Developed by Interpersonal Group Psychotherapy. Interpersonal Carl Rogers, the person- centered approach to group group psychotherapy is based on the assumption that psychotherapy assumes that human beings tend to many psychological problems result from problems in move toward wholeness and self-actualization and that relation- ships (Johnson & Matross, 1977; Yalom & they can find their way without much direction from the Leszoz, 2005). Depression, anxiety, and per- sonality group facilitator. The facilitator creates a healing disorders may be due to problems in relationships with climate in the group by being caring, empathetic, romantic partners, friends, or family members. understanding, accepting, warm, and genuine. In such Individuals need to correct self-defeating, unsuccessful, an environment, group members are able to drop their and ineffective patterns of behavior. The group is used defenses and work toward meaningful goals. There is a as a social microcosm in which mem- bers interact basic trust in the person's ability to move forward if the similarly to how they generally behave outside the appropriate conditions for fostering growth are present. group. Self-defeating patterns of behavior become apparent in the group, are identified, and are Rational-Emotive Behavior Group Psychotherapy. corrected within the group. The new, self-enhancing Rational-emotive behavior group psychotherapy is patterns of behavior then are generalized to based on the assumption that at an early age relationships outside of the group. individuals learn "shoulds," "oughts," and "musts" that are translated into irrational assumptions held on a preconscious level. These assumptions then lead to self-defeating beliefs and behaviors (Ellis, 1996, 1997). 13 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Self-Help, Mutual-Support Groups THE UNIQUE POWER OF GROUP EXPERIENCES Self-help or mutual-support groups are Some people seek isolation and privacy while voluntary groups whose members meet to ex- change they try to think through their prob- lems and decide social support and aid in order to solve or deal with a how to improve their relationships. Others seek out a common problem or condition (Goodman & Jacobs, friend or a counselor and discuss their problems and 1994). Individuals join self-help groups because they plans in a dyad. Groups, however, have several unique face a common predicament, problem, or concern advantages over solitary contemplation and dyadic that causes them to bond psychologi- cally. The price discussion for those who want to grow, develop, for membership usually is not money, but rather (a) change, and heal. Their unique capacities are due admitting that one shares the common problem, (b) largely to the more heterogeneous, complex social reciprocal helping, and (c) commitment to follow the setting that groups provide. The greater number of recovery or treatment program advocated by the relationships available in the group provides richness group, such as the 12-Step Program advocated by and potential for learning, growth, change, and Alcoholics Anonymous. healing that are not possible in a dyad or a solitary situation. Although many differences exist among support groups, most are self-governing, with members, Supportive Community not "experts," determining the group's procedures. In order to conduct an Alcoholics Anonymous group, for Groups generate a sense of community, example, one must be an alcoholic. An academic belonging, caring, support, acceptance, and researcher on addiction who had never been an assistance. So many benefits come from be- ing part of alcoholic would not be accepted as a facilitator. This is a supportive community that encourages change and so because the members believe they, the people growth that it would take an entire book to discuss actually living with the problem or affliction, are the them. To list a few, though, membership in a supportive best resource for finding ways of coping, managing, group strengthens one's identity as a person who is and solving the problem. growing and changing, eases the pain associated with therapeutic explora- tion, and encourages risk taking in The variety of self-help groups available is achieving growth goals. It also reduces neurotic enormous and they are proliferating, primarily because distress, increases hope, reduces depression and members believe that their needs are not being met by loneliness, increases self-esteem, im- proves one's existing edu cational, social, or health agencies. problem-solving ability, and increases feelings of Goodman and Jacobs (1994) estimate that as many as validation (Cline, 1999, Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Each 8 million people in the United States alone belong to member's confidence in his or her ability to grow and self-help groups. Self-help groups exist for almost every change tends to increase as the other group members major stress-related, psychological, and medical commit themselves to assisting and supporting the problem. If you have an addiction to alcohol, other member in doing so. The power of authenticating drugs, sex, shopping, or any other activity, support affirmations from diverse peers gives groups far more groups are available. If you have lost a child or a influence over individuals' growth and health than do spouse or a friend, there is a grief-oriented support solitary contemplation or dyad interactions. group for you. If you have cancer, heart problems, diabetes, or any other major medical condition, Hope support groups exist. If you are dying, support groups are available. Supportive groups also have the power to inculcate hope and decrease demoralization in their members. A person's sense of hope may be one of the best predictors of mental health and adjustment, and a person's sense of demoralization may be an accurate 14 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo pre- dictor of psychological problems (Snyder, Induce and Reduce Powerful Feelings Cheavens, & Sympson, 1997). To be demor- alized is to be disheartened, bewildered, confused, disordered, Groups have the ability to induce and then and deprived of courage. The demoralized person feels reduce powerful feelings. Not only may the relationship isolated, hopeless, and helpless. Group situations can with the facilitator re-create emotions felt toward generate events that inspire hope, the feeling that one authority figures, but relationships with other group can change, and the belief that one can influence the members also may re-create emotions felt toward causes of one's problems. Seeing other group members siblings and schoolmates. The wider variety of people who have successfully grappled with problems or who and the more diverse interpersonal events that take have changed as a result of their participa- tion in the place within a group enable the group to induce a group is one such event. The more hope an individual wide range of powerful emotions. has, the more ways the individual can identify to reach personal goals and the more confident the person is One specific way in which groups induce and that he or she can engage in the actions necessary to reduce powerful feelings is by provid- ing an reach those goals. environment in which participants may experience previously deeply upsetting feelings with a new sense of Microcosm of the Real World acceptance. In therapy groups, participants may encounter their worst fears head-on in order to Groups also function as a microcosm of the understand and overcome them. By finding that the real world. Participants eventually create in a growth or previously feared feelings are not overwhelming or that therapy group the same interpersonal dynamics they the feared consequences do not occur, participants always have been in- volved in by behaving as they do may have a corrective emotional experience. in their relationships outside of the group. The benefit of Experiencing and discussing emotions in a supportive this happening in a supportive group is that and caring environment usually reduces the emotions maladaptive interpersonal behavior is revealed in a and decreases their influence on participants' future setting where it can be changed. In other words, behavior and thinking. groups provide a remedial environment for the solution of personal and interpersonal problems. Perspective Taking In general, people originally learn their With psychological problems comes maladaptive patterns of behaving and thinking by egocentrism. A depressed or panicked person is participating in relationships with others. Within focused on him or herself. Growth and support groups, supportive groups, however, people have the however, provide a setting in which participants' opportunity to learn constructive patterns of behaving egocentrism may be decreased and their and reasoning. Growth and therapy groups enable perspective-taking ability and empathy increased. The participants to work on their problems immediately by individual's egocentrism is reduced when group taking corrective steps in their relationships with other. members focus on other members' problems and group members. In addition, strengths and positive experience a variety of responses to their own actions. interpersonal behavior are re- vealed in a setting in Through exchanges of ideas about problems and which they can be enhanced. In creating a microcosm solutions within a supportive context where group of the outside world, groups provide an arena for members feel understood and accepted, members participants to interact freely with others, help them to become more aware of and open to other identify and understand what goes wrong and right in perspectives. their interactions, and ultimately enable them to change maladaptive patterns and refine constructive Group facilitators also may structure patterns. perspective-reversal situations in which par- ticipants switch positions and argue one another's point of view or take the perspective of a significant person outside 15 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo of the group, such as a mother, boss, or spouse. As the those of their groupmates. Such comparisons occur ability of a group member to understand the other naturally within a group and facilitate the discovery of members' perspectives and feel em- pathy for their possible new ways of feeling, perceiving, and plights grows, his or her egocentrism decreases and the behaving. In a growth or therapy group, members may ability to solve personal problems increases. make downward social comparisons (comparing themselves with someone who has even more severe Multiple Sources of Feedback problems) to raise self-esteem and reduce stress (Gibbons & Gerrard, 1989, Wood, Taylor, & Lichtman, Another benefit inherent in groups is they 1985). Alternatively, they may make upward social provide multiple sources of feedback. The availability of comparisons (comparing themselves with someone immediate information about how one is perceived by who is coping effectively with the problem) to identify peers is unique to the group situation. Each group ways to improve their own coping skills (Blanton, Buunk, member uses the other members as a mirror to reflect Gibbons, & Kuyper, 1999, Collins, 1996, Vrugt & Koenis, reactions to his or her actions. Although people usually 2002). have an accurate view of themselves (they see themselves as others see them), there are times when Vicarious Learning others see them quite differently from how they see themselves. The other group members thus become a Groups provide the opportunity for vicarious resource that a group member uses to understand him learning, which is the ability to learn based on what or herself. The other group members, due to their others around you are saying and doing. Social differing perspectives, perceive the actions and ex- learning theory posits that people can acquire new periences of each member in a variety of ways. The attitudes and behaviors by observing others' actions resulting reactions and feedback provide a rich source (Bandura, 1976, 2006). Within growth and support for understanding oneself and reframing one's groups, individuals can witness their groupmates experiences. modeling constructive behavior and attitudes that they themselves wish to master. Observing other group Multiple Sources of Social Comparison members resolve conflicts, build trust, and provide assistance to one another can offer clear guidelines for Groups provide multiple sources of social how the member should behave in the future. Evidence comparison for participants. Such comparisons cause suggests that members of groups that emphasize members to recognize that their problems are universal. explicit modeling of constructive behavior improve Each group member realizes that his or her problems more than do members of groups that discuss only the are not unique, but rather a common human problematic behavior (Falloon, Lindley, McDonald, & experience shared by other members. Yalom and Marks, 1977). Leszoz (2005) note that many people secretly believe that they are unique in their wretchedness, that they Require Wide Variety of Social Skills alone have certain frightening or unacceptable problems, thoughts, impulses, and fantasies. Finding Groups promote the learning and use of a out, in reality, that many other people feel the same wide variety of social skills and competen- cies. A group way is a powerful source of relief. is the ideal setting in which to increase a person's expertise in using interpersonal and small-group skills. When individuals feel threatened, confused, or People can read books and study research all they stressed, they often affiliate with others who face similar want, but true expertise is built by engaging in an problems or troubling events (Schachter, 1959), and action, receiving feedback on its effectiveness, they tend to feel better about themselves and have a engaging in a modified action, receiving feedback, more positive mood after doing so (Frable, Platt, & and so on. Having experimented with new behavior Hoey, 1998). Group members often compare their patterns in the group, the participants feel able to feelings, perceptions, attitudes, and behavior with engage in the new behaviors in the outside world. 16 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo Groups provide a setting in which problem areas can can help others is psychologically healthy. Helping be identified, new patterns of behavior can be tried out others in itself is a sign of health and self-actualization. under low-risk conditions, feedback can be attained Finally, change is promoted by accepting the help and from others, and the effectiveness of the new behaviors support of others. In some cases, the help is from can be determined. Listening to others discuss their external sources such as a higher being (12-Step problems and helping them experiment with more Program). In other cases, the help is from other group constructive ways of behaving and thinking, for members. While being helped, members benefit from example, requires social skills and competencies that personalized learning, social approval in a supportive may never be required in a dyadic relationship. climate, and observing others struggle with similar Participants in therapeutic groups stress interpersonal problems. learning as being one of the most helpful results of their participation (Kivlighan & Mullison, 1988, Kivlighan, Resources for Gaining Self-Insight Multon, & Brossart, 1996). Groups provide greater resources for obtaining Influence Behaviors and Attitudes insight into oneself than do dyads or isolated thought. Change is promoted by reframing past experiences Groups are powerful influences on the and current problems so that a new social reality behavioral and attitudinal patterns of members. Factors emerges. Group members gain a deeper that have been demonstrated to impact patterns of understanding of themselves through other members' behavior and at- titudes include internalizing group reactions to their behavior and disclosures, revealing norms, publicly committing oneself to engage in new their problems for the group to analyze, the feedback behaviors, viewing credible models, identifying with they receive from groupmates, and their reactions to other group members, being confronted with other members' actions and problems. Groups provide personalized information, discussing information with a variety of perspectives and reactions that stimulate peers, and teaching what one has learned to others. In insight into and understanding of one's problems and a growth or therapy group, the emphasis is on the behavior. The other group members become an mastery and adoption of more constructive ways of avenue used by the individual to understand him or behav- ing and thinking. herself. In addition, a group adds to any insight achieved by a member through its consensual Helping Others validation of the insight. By providing labels for the member's thoughts, feelings, and experiences, and by Groups provide opportunities for participants to helping the member reflect on his or her interactions understand and help their peers. By working to with them, the other group members help the member understand others in the group and by caring for the understand his or her actions. personal struggles that other members are going through, group members gain in a variety of ways. First, Cognitive Learning helping others reduces egocentrism and focuses attention and energy on others rather than away from Groups increase the quantity and quality of others. Second, helping others results in personal cognitive learning (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2002). change. Alcoholics Anonymous, for example, states Many types of growth, therapy, and self-help groups that the best way to remain sober is to target one's emphasize the learning of specific cognitive energy outward by helping others remain sober. Third, frameworks as part of positive change. Both increased in helping other group members, participants build understanding of oneself and the conscious self-esteem, self-insight, and increased interpersonal implementation of increased competencies depend competence. Participants may feel needed and on cognitive learning. In their classic study of growth helpful. Fourth, helping others provides an important groups, Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) found that opportunity for engaging in altruistic behavior that may self-disclosure involving some sort of cognitive mastery be absent from members' daily lives. Fifth, a person who or understanding, not self-disclosure in itself, was related 17 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo to positive change. That is, self-discovery that leads to exploratory affective stage, members discuss their some sort of real change in thought process is more personal attitudes and opinions on a moderate level important than merely stating the problem. but avoid disclosing strongly held emotions or intimate about themselves. In the affective stage IMPORTANCE OF DISCLOSING EMOTIONS WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? Change is promoted by experiencing and expressing positive and negative emotions about the Genghis Khan was probably the greatest actions of other group members and about important conqueror in history. Between 1206 and 1258 A.D., he life events. The therapeutic and growth value of such and his sons conquered nearly all of Asia and much of self-disclosure depends, of course, on group members central Europe, If it were not for the death of his responding with acceptance, support, and caring youngest son Ogadai in 1241, the rest of Europe would feelings. First, change is promoted by experiencing probably have been conquered. Genghis Khan's intense positive and negative emotions, whether or not empire lasted for hundreds of years. So how did he lead they are ex- pressed. Events within the group may nomadic tribes from the Mongolian desert to create the unleash emotions that participants previously have largest empire in history! The societies they conquered been unable or unwilling to experience. In many (including China and several Muslim empires) were far instances, participants find that such feelings are not larger, were more culturally and technologically overwhelming or that the feared consequences do not advanced, and had larger armies. Yet Genghis Khan occur. Par- ticipants may learn to accept the feelings prevailed. As a leader, he succeeded by choosing his they previously were afraid of, and a correc- tive Mongol officers on merit rather than class (in contrast to emotional experience may result even when the most armies of the Middle Ages), being open to new feelings are not expressed overtly. tools and ideas (he was more interested in acquiring trading routes and technology than subjects), and Second, change is promoted by expressing establishing a superior communication system with his emotions and describing emotional experiences tends subordinates (he developed a real-time signaling to unify group members and increase their system of colored banners in battle that allowed him to commitment to one another and to the group Corey & give orders that were in- stantly understood by his Corey, 2005, Leichtentritt & Shechtman, 1998). soldiers). Historically, Genghis Khan was an Self-disclosure to a group of peers is quite different from exceptionally successful leader. self-disclosure to one other person. It feels less dramatic and is less anxiety-laden to reveal private information to Leadership matters. Leaders shape people's a single person than to a group. Taking the risk of lives, for good and for ill. The leaders of Enron, for making a self-disclosure to a group is more meaningful, example, impoverished thousands of employees and then, because it deepens the group's intimacy and stockholders, stealing their livelihoods, destroying their trust, which in turn makes further self-disclosures possible retirement accounts, and ripping them apart with stress. (Kaul & Bednar, 2003, Johnson & Noonan, 1972; Roark & On the other hand, Winston Churchill inspired his nation Sharah, 1989, Tschuschke & Dies, 1994). and the free world to resist tyranny and maintain their freedom. The English word lead is more than a The significance of self-disclosure is not the thousand years old, and its meaning has changed little content of what is disclosed but, rather, the response of from its Anglo- Saxon root laedare, meaning "to lead other members to what one has said. In getting to the people on a journey." To lead is to guide by influencing response, a group may move through several stages of the destination and the direction for the group to go. self-disclosure (Altman & Taylor, 1973). In the orientation The Oxford English Dictionary notes the appearance of stage, members focus on superficial topics and avoid the word "leader" in the English language as early as disclosing anything too personal or provocative. They 1300, while the word "leadership" did not appear until form general impressions of one another and strive to about 1800. A leader is a person who can influence present a good impression of themselves. In the others to be more effective in working to achieve their 18 | Prelims GRPD311: Group Dynamics Prepared by Roland Andrew Bartolazo mutual goals and maintain effective working of each leadership theory. The chapter ends with a relationships among members. Leadership is the discussion of organizational leadership process through which leaders exert such influence. Being a leader and exerting leadership takes skill. EXAMPLE OF A LEADER: BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Leadership skills are your ability to help the group achieve its goals and maintain effective working Before Benjamin Franklin reached thirty years of relationships among mem- bers. Leadership is often age he had been chosen public printer for the colony contrasted with managing a group. The root origin of of Pennsylvania, had founded the famous and man- age is a Latin word meaning "hand," and influential Junto Club, created and published Poor managers are individuals who "handle" the status quo. Richard's Almanac (the most widely read publication in America), had founded the first circulating library, and The consequence of leadership is cooperation had been elected grand master of the Freemasons. among individuals in pursuit of a common goal. The Lodge of Pennsylvania. The next year he inaugurated effects of leadership, however, are difficult to identify the first fire-fighting company in Pennsylvania and was because successful goal achievement is the result of chosen clerk of the Pennsylvania Assembly. He was one the coordinated efforts of many (not just the leader), of the most successful businessmen in the colonies, but and influenced by the actions of competitors, changes had enough interest in scholarship and research to be in weather patterns, discovery of new technologies, the founder (at age thirty-seven) of the American broad economic conditions, currency fluctuations, and Philosophical Society. He contin- ued to serve in a many other factors beyond the control of the leader or variety of leadership posts in politics, the army, science, the followers. Leadership may be illusionary. Many diplomacy, and education (founding the academy philosophers, such as Hegel and Spencer, believed that that became the University of Pennsylvania). At eighty "great leaders" are merely puppets of social forces that he led the group enterprise of writing the Constitution of shape events and history, regardless of who occupies the United States. A biographer noted, "Nobody could positions of leadership. These two broad views of approach him without being charmed by his leaders and leadership (i.e., history is shaped by great conversation, humor, wisdom, and kindness" (Fay, leaders versus history is shaped by strong social forces 1929). How would you explain Benjamin Franklin's regardless of who leaders are) have been the primary success as a leader? Was it due to his (pick only one): focus of the debate about leadership. 1. Inborn, genetic traits? There is also a debate about whether leadership can be best understood as a qual- ity of an individual or as 2. Style of leadership? a relationship between leaders and followers. Leadership may depend on a person's traits or style of 3. Ability to influence others? doing things, or leadership might only exist between leaders and followers. Grint (2005) notes that it only 4. Occupation of positions of authority? requires followers to do nothing for leadership to fail. It may even be followers who teach leaders how to lead. 5. Ability to provide helpful behaviors in diverse Followers can play an active role in the relationship, situations? empowering their leaders, influencing their leaders' behavior, and determining the consequences of the In selecting one of these alternatives, you have leaders' actions (Howell & Shamir, 2005). decided on a theory of leadership. In this chapter we shall review each of these theories. In this chapter, the five major theories of effective leadership (genetic traits, style of leadership, ability to influence others, occupying a position of authority, and abil- ity to provide situational leadership) are discussed (see Figure 1). Benjamin Franklin is used as an example 19 | Prelims