Gramatyka kontrastywna angielsko-polska - Final Test PDF

Language families Comparing and classifying languages: Types of comparisons: -​ comparative (any number of languages) vs. typological (large samples) vs. contrastive (usually two) Language classifications: -​ genetic, i.e according to the historical development of languages (diachronic)...

Language families Comparing and classifying languages: Types of comparisons: -​ comparative (any number of languages) vs. typological (large samples) vs. contrastive (usually two) Language classifications: -​ genetic, i.e according to the historical development of languages (diachronic) -​ typological, i.e. according to the structural properties of languages (synchronic) Comparative method: -​ comparing linguistic forms (cognates) in basic vocabulary allows us to: 1. reconstruct the proto-forms (etymons), 2. determine whether the languages are related. -​ Latin pater, Greek pater, and German Vater are derived from ProtoIndo-European *pətr ‘father’, and so the three forms are cognate, and the three languages are daughters of the parent PIE language -​ This method is based on the assumption that language change is regular Groupings of languages: -​ language family - a group of languages that can be proven to have descended from a common ancestor (parent) language e.g. Indo-European (from Proto-Indo-European) -​ gropings within a family: language division - refers to the systematic categorization of languages based on their shared features, origins, and structures. Languages can be classified in several ways, including genetic, typological, and areal classifications./ branch - refers to a subgroup within a language family, consisting of languages that have evolved from a more recent common ancestor within that family (example: Germanic Branch, West Germanic: English, German, Dutch; North Germanic: Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic -​ language isolate - language with questionable classification, e.g due to the death of sister languages as in Basque Language vs dialect: -​ The classification of two varieties as separate languages or dialects depends on factors such as formal differentiation, mutual intelligibility, standardization, historical, social, cultural, and political aspects, as well as language attitudes. -​ Highly mutually intelligible varieties, like Polish and Kashubian or Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, can still be classified as separate languages due to historical, cultural, and political factors. -​ Political events often influence the classification of languages, as seen in the case of Serbo-Croatian, which has been divided into Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. Slavic and Germanic languages: -​ Slavic: East: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian Rusyn  West: Polish, Kashubian, Polabian, Serbian, Czech, Slowak South: Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Old Church Slavic/Slavonic (+) -​ Germanic: East: Gothic (+) North: Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese West: English, Frisian, Dutch, Afrikaans, German, Yiddish, Wymysorys Other branches: -​ Baltic: Old Prussian (+), Western: Lithuanian,. Latvian -​ Celtic: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Mans, Welsh, Breton, Cornish -​ Italic: Latin Italian, Siciliam, Catalan, Spanish, Galician, Portugese, French, Romansh, Corsican, Romanian -​ Greek -​ Albanian -​ Armenian -​ Romani Non-Indo-European: -​ Uralic, e.g. Finnish, Karelian, Estonian, Saami, Hungarian -​ Turkic, e.g. Turkish, Tata -​ Afro-Asiatic, e.g. Maltese -​ other: Basque (isolate) Languages typology and universals Tertium comparationis: -​ When comparing elements in different languages, we look at shared features such as formal structure, meaning, and functional use. -​ Types of translational correspondence (TC) include formal correspondence, which compares aspects like phonemes, morphemes, or word order, and semantic equivalence, which focuses on meaning. -​ Pragmatic or functional equivalence considers aspects such as style or register when comparing elements across languages. Typology vs. universals: -​ Language typology as the study of “typologically anduniversally shared features of languages” -​ sub-disciplines include: phonological, word order, morphological and semantic typology  -​ language universals - statements about properties attributed to most/all languages Why are languages similar?: -​ Cognitive patterns: SOV, SVO,and VSO as the most common word orders the predominance of SO word order can be related to the greater importance of agents than patients -​ Pragmatic and functional patters: deitic systems (spatial, temporal) and pronomial categories help speakers refer to people and objects Morphological typology: Based on: -​ the complexity of word structure (number of morphemes) -​ the easy in which languages combine morphemes into words -​ the ways in which languages express lexical and grammatical meanings Synthesis: -​ Synthetic and analytic expressions of grammatical meaning in English: She paint-ed vs, She will paint Fusion: Variation in English: She loves him vs. She painted him -​ Number of concepts expressed by grammatical markers (exponence): 1 agglutinative, more than 1 fusional -​ The degree to which markers are connected to the stem (phonological fusion): separate words (isolating) vs. easily separable markers (agglutinative) vs. less separable markers (fusional) Analytic/ Isolating languages: Little morphological complexity: grammatical markers are independent words and Rigid word order Agglutinative languages: Words are composed of a root and a sequence of easily separable affixes and An ax carries one grammatical meaning. Fusional languages: Axes may convey several meanings and are less easily segmentable than in agglutinative languages. Fusional languages often have a relatively free word order (e.g. Polish) Polysynthetic languages: Complex morphological structure; arguments are indexed by pronominal axes > words may function as full sentences Sounds systems in English and Polish Describing consonants: -​ manner of articulation -​ place of articulation -​ voice English and Polish consonants: Main contrasts: -​ Complex contrast in Polish between (post-)dental, alveolar, and alveolo-palatal fricatives /s z/ vs. /ʂ ʐ/ vs. /ɕ ʑ/ and affricates /ʦ ʣ/ vs. /tʂ dʐ/ vs. /ʨ ʥ/ -​ English alveolars vs. Polish (post-)dentals /t d s z n l/ In Polish dentals are retracted as alveolar allophones before alveolars, e.g.trzeba (unless affricated to [ʧɛba] in Poznań speech). -​ Absence of dental fricatives /θ ð/ in Polish, resulting in substitutions with labiodental fricatives /f v/, dental stops /t d/ or dental fricatives /s z/ Describing vowels: -​ monophthong -​ oral -​ long -​ high -​ back -​ rounded Main contrasts: -​ Number of vowels: 6 in Polish vs. 12 in English (excluding diphthongs, depending on variety) -​ Quantity/length as phonemic in English vs. absent in Polish -​ Diphthongs and triphthongs in English vs. phonetically comparable sequences of vowel+glide in Polish, e.g. maj, daj (but with different articulation of the glide and syllable/morpheme boundaries Polish ‘nasal’ vowels: -​ In Polish, the nasal vowels are realized differently depending on the following consonant, such as a nasalized vowel followed by a homorganic nasal before stops and affricates (e.g., sęp /sɛmp/ 'vulture') and nasalized diphthongs or sequences before fricatives (e.g., kęs /kɛũs/ 'bite'). -​ In word-final position, Polish nasal vowels lose their nasalization, as seen in drogę /drɔgɛ/ 'road.ACC.SG'. Assimilations -​ effect of influence of neighbouring sounds -​ Types: Regressive/anticipatory (by a following sound): ten boys (n)>(m) Progressive (by a preceding sound): beds (-z) vs. pets (-s) Coalescent/fusion (mutual): won’t you (wontczju) Stress in English: -​ Levels of stress: primary (ˈ), secondary (ˌ), unstressed (unmarked), e.g. ˌ underˈstand, ˌinterˌnationalizˈation -​ Stress patterns in compound nouns vs. phrases, e.g. (the) White House ‘residence of the US President’ vs. white'house ‘house that is white’ -​ Less consistent patterns in compounds of other lexical categories, e.g. ˈhandˌwash (v.), ˌunderˈstand (v.) Stress in Polish:  -​ Polish stress typically falls on the penultimate (next to the last) syllable, but exceptions include antepenultimate (third to last) stress in loanwords (muzyka, prezydent), past tense and conditional verbs (byliśmy, widziałbym), and numerals (siedemset). -​ Pre-antepenultimate (fourth to last) stress occurs in conditional forms (pisalibyście), while final stress is found in abbreviations (PeKa'eS), and hypercorrection (a phenomenon where speakers apply language rules incorrectly in an attempt to sound more proper or prestigious, often leading to nonstandard or erroneous forms) can lead to stress shifts in words like biblioteka. English and Polish morphology -​ morphology is concerns with the relationship between the form of a word and its meaning -​ types of relationships: regular, e.g manage, manager vs. irregular (suppletive), e.g. bad, worse, worst Types of words: -​ A word is a meaningful, distinct, stable, and mobile unit that serves as a building block for larger linguistic structures, as in the sentence "She performed beautifully." -​ A lexeme denotes a distinct concept (e.g., PERFORM), while a word form is a grammatically conditioned variant of that lexeme (e.g., perform, performs, performed). -​ In linguistic analysis, types refer to abstract categories (e.g., the lexeme to be), whereas tokens refer to individual occurrences (e.g., to be appearing multiple times in a sentence, leading to 6 tokens for 3 or 4 types). To be or not to be Types of categories: -​ lexical (parts of speech; of the lexicon) e.g. noun, verb -​ syntactic (sets of words/phrases with a similar distribution), e.g. noun, noun phrase -​ grammatical (grammaticalized sets of features) e.g. number, tense Morpheme and allomorphs: -​ A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language, such as cat-s, dog-s, or sh-es. -​ The term "morpheme" can refer to either a minimal sign (e.g., the variants of -s like [s], [z], [əz]) or an abstract sign (e.g., the plural morpheme -s). -​ The variants or contextual realizations of a morpheme, such as [s], [z], and [əz], are called allomorphs of the morpheme -s. Roots, stems, and themes: -​ A root is the simplest form of a lexical morpheme found in related words, such as colour in colourful, coloured, and colourless.  -​ A stem is a simple or complex form to which affixes are added, such as amuse in amusement and amusements. -​ In fusional languages, the stem (or theme) may consist of a root and a thematic morpheme, like in the example czyt- (root) + -a- (thematic vowel) + -m (1SG.PRES) = czytam ('I am reading'). -​ A root is the basic, core part of a word that carries its main meaning (like color in colorful). -​ A stem is the part of the word to which you can add prefixes or suffixes (like amuse in amusement). It can be just the root or include other parts. Free and bound morphemes: -​ Free morphemes can stand alone as words (e.g., dog), while bound morphemes must attach to a stem (e.g., dogs, unhappy). -​ In English, most roots are free, but bound roots appear in Latin borrowings (e.g., legible), while readable has a free root of Germanic origin. -​ Bound roots can also appear in words with "cranberry morphemes," like cranberry and gormless (meaning 'foolish'), and are more typical in fusional languages, such as the bound root czyt- in Polish (czytać meaning 'to read'). Lexical and grammatical morphemes: -​ Lexical morphemes carry the core meaning of a word, such as amusement in amusements. -​ Grammatical morphemes serve a grammatical function, like indicating tense, number, or case, as seen in -s for plural in amusements. -​ Differ in two ways: Openness: Lexical morphemes are more open, meaning their number can expand (new words can be added), while grammatical morphemes are closed and have a fixed number. Obligatoriness: Grammatical morphemes are often obligatory, while lexical morphemes are optional in forming sentences. Derivational and inflectional affixes: -​ derivational morphemes (BDMs) create new words, e.g. amusements -​ inflectional morphemes (BIMs) modify stems to express grammatical meanings, e.g. many amusements at the exhibition BDM vs. BIM: -​ BDMs (Bound Derivational Morphemes) change the meaning of the stem in an overt way, such as unsuccessful (where un- changes the meaning of successful). -​ BDMs are the only morphemes that can change the lexical category of a word, for example, turning sing (verb) into singer (noun). -​ BIMs (Bound Inflectional Morphemes) indicate grammatical relations between words, like subject-verb agreement in She likes sushi.  -​ BDMs attach closer to the root than BIMs, as seen in agreements (where -ment is a BDM) versus agreesment, which is not a valid word. Morphological processes: -​ Grammatical markers can appear as independent words, as in She’s going to arrive soon, where "going to" functions as a grammatical marker. -​ Bound markers are attached to words with some phonological adjustments, like He likes ice-cream or She’ll arrive soon, where -s and -ll are bound morphemes. -​ Stems modified by ablaut or tone convey meaning changes through changes in vowel sounds or tone, such as in He drove home, where the vowel change in drive to drove indicates a past tense. Affixation and cliticization: -​ Affxes refer to the positions where affixes can attach to words: prefixes (e.g., unhappy) come before the root, and suffixes (e.g., amusements) come after the root. -​ Less common types of affixation include: Infixes, which occur within a word, like in the playful example fanfuckingtastic (?), Interfixes, which connect two parts of a compound word, such as in editor-in-chief, Circumfixes, which attach around the root, e.g., embolden (?). -​ Clitics are units that attach to a word, phrase, or clause to form a single prosodic unit, like in the Queen of England’s birthday, where ’s is a clitic. Non-linear order: -​ Stem modification involves changes within the stem itself, like umlaut in man : men or ablaut in br- : bierz- ('to take'). -​ Suppletion occurs when distinct forms appear within an inflectional paradigm, as seen in be : am : was : been (forms of BE). -​ Conversion is the process where a word changes its class (e.g., from noun to verb) without adding an affix, sometimes involving a stress change, like bottle (noun) vs. bottle (verb) or per'mit (verb) vs. 'permit (noun). Compounding and other processes: -​ Compounds are formed by combining roots, such as blackbird. -​ Noun compounds have a conventionalized meaning and typically carry initial stress, like 'blackboard (a board for writing on) vs. black 'board (a board that is black). -​ Stump compounds are formed by using the initial syllables of words, such as Pan Am (from Pan American World Airways). -​ Blends combine two stems, often with part of each stem reproduced, like brunch (from breakfast + lunch). -​ Reduplication occurs in compounds like mish-mash, where part of the word is repeated for emphasis or stylistic effect. Acronyms and abbreviations: -​ Acronyms are formed from initial sounds/letters e.g. NATO  -​ Abbreviations are formed as above but are not pronounced as words, e.g. WA Clipping and back-formation: -​ Clipping involves shortening a polysyllabic word, such as turning advertisement into ad or advert. -​ Back-formation occurs when a word resembling a derived form undergoes "deaffixation," like edit (from editor), modeled after words like act vs. actor. Number: -​ In English, number is expressed through an allomorph of the plural morpheme -s, such as [z], [s], or [əz] (the 'regular' inflection). -​ Other irregular processes include suffixes (e.g., children, data, kibbutzim), stem modification (e.g., mouse : mice), suppletion-like forms (e.g., person : people), and zero forms (e.g., fish : fish). -​ In Polish, the plural form depends on the gender and declension of the noun, as seen in examples like domy ('houses'), damy ('ladies'), and kości ('bones'). Gender: -​ Gender in English is primarily based on natural (pronominal) gender, where gender agreement occurs in anaphoric pronouns, like in That’s Mary … I’ve known her for many years. -​ Gender assignment to masculine, feminine, and neuter categories is semantic in English (e.g., feminine for female humans and higher animals), whereas in languages with grammatical gender, gender agreement occurs in adjectives, participles, demonstratives, pronouns, verbs, and numerals. -​ Animation/personification can also influence gender assignment, as seen in Tasmanian Vernacular English with a speaker referring to a wisdom tooth as I had her out Syntax Basic parts of a sentence: -​ In a sentence, the subject (obligatory), verb (obligatory), and object (obligatory for transitive verbs) are essential components, while the modifier and adverbial are optional. For example: The happy student did the homework in the evening. Zadowolony student zrobił wieczorem zadanie domowe. -​ Verbs refer to the action or state, while predicate includes both the verb and all its complements (like the object or adverbial). For example: The boy read the book (verb = read; predicate = read the book). The book was fantastic (verb = was; predicate = was fantastic). Chłopiec przeczytał książkę (verb = przeczytał; predicate = przeczytał książkę). Książka była fantastyczna (verb = była; predicate = była fantastyczna). Word order: -​ SVO (Subject-Verb-Object) is the default word order in both English and Polish, as seen in Ala ma kota (Ala has a cat) and You must have patience. -​ In Polish, (A)VS(C) word order is possible with intransitive verbs, like in Przychodzi baba do lekarza (An old woman comes to the doctor). -​ Polish has more flexible word order, while English typically relies on the SVO structure, making non-SVO word orders either marked or ungrammatical. For example, Patience you must have (OSV) is marked, while Patience must have you (OVS) is ungrammatical. Topicalization: -​ Topicalization is the movement of a constituent to the sentence-initial position to emphasize it. For example, in English: The answer I’ll give you in a minute (where The answer is emphasized). -​ In Polish, topicalization can also be used for emphasis, as in To Piotrowi Michał dał klucze (Michał gave the keys to Piotr), where To Piotrowi emphasizes Piotr. Sentence types: -​ Coordinated clauses have the same "weight" or importance, where each clause is independent but connected. For example: John plays the guitar and Mary sings. Janek gra na gitarze a Maria śpiewa -​ Subordinated (or embedded) clauses have less "weight" than the main clause and are introduced by a subordinating conjunction. For example: John plays the guitar because Mary sings. Janek gra na gitarze, ponieważ Maria śpiewa Agreement: -​ dependence with matching of features Ala ma kota Government: -​ dependence without matching of features Ala ma kota She has fired him Case alignment: refers to how case marking is applied to the verb’s arguments (subject and object). There are three main types: accusative, ergative, and neutral alignment -​ Accusative alignment: -​ The transitive subject (A) and intransitive subject (S) are in the nominative case, while the direct object (P) is in the accusative case. SheA has red himP (Accusative alignment in English). AlaA ma kotaP (Accusative alignment in Polish) -​ Neutral alignment:  -​ The transitive subject (A), intransitive subject (S), and direct object (P) are marked the same. The boss has fired the man Tramwaj wyprzedzil samochód -​ Ergative alignment: -​ The transitive subject (A) is in the ergative case, while the intransitive subject (S) and direct object (P) are in the absolutive case. The windowS broke (Ergative subject). The treeA broke the windowP (Ergative alignment in the transitive sentence). Structural contrast: refer to differences in the presence or absence of certain linguistic features between languages: -​ Presence/absence of lexical categories: For example, the existence of articles in some languages, like English, but not in others, like Polish. -​ Presence/absence of phrase structure rules: Some languages, like Polish, allow subjectless constructions, often in existential statements. Examples in Polish: Jest już późno (It is already late). Burczy mi w brzuchu (My stomach is growling). Categorial contrast: In some cases, equivalent forms in Polish and English belong to different lexical or syntactic categories. For example: -​ Polish adverb vs. English adjective: Czuję się źle (I feel bad). -​ Polish noun phrase (NP) vs. English prepositional phrase (PP): -​ wierzchołek góry (the top of the mountain). Functional contrast: Equivalent forms in different languages can serve different syntactic functions: -​ Polish subject vs. English direct object: Jankowi zginęły klucze (John lost the keys). -​ Polish indirect object vs. English subject: Jest mu zimno (He feels cold). Lexicon​ Semantics: study of meaning -​ word/lexical semantics (meaning of lexical items and relationships within semantic fields) -​ Sentence/compositional semantics (properties of sentences) Words: -​ a meaningful unit that is distinct, internally stable, and mobile, e.g. She performed beautifully. -​ lexemes denote a distinct concept, e.g. perform, while word forms are grammatically conditioned variants of a lexeme, e.g... perform, performs Types of words: -​ simplex words - one morpheme, e.g sun -​ complex words - consisting of at least two morphemes, e.g. writer -​ compounds - consisting of at least two stems, e.g armchair Words with predictable meanings: These words have a connection between their form (sound) and their meaning that can be either natural or conventional. -​ Natural relationships: -​ Onomatopoeia: Words like miaow that imitate sounds. -​ Sound symbolism: Words like slimy that evoke qualities through sound. -​ Word formation: new words like vandammize are created through combining familiar elements. -​ Changes obscuring form-meaning: Phonological change: Cupboard evolved from cup-board. Semantic change: Spinster shifted from 'woman who spins' to 'unmarried woman'. Words with non-predictable meanings: -​ Polysemous words: Words with multiple meanings, where some meanings are restricted by collocations (e.g., white wine, white man). -​ Idioms: Multi-word expressions whose meaning cannot be predicted from individual words (e.g., kick the bucket). -​ Proverbs: Sentence-long sayings with metaphorical meaning (e.g., It’s no use crying over spilt milk). Types of meaning: -​ Denotation: The direct, literal meaning of a word, independent of context (e.g., DOG denotes 'a domesticated canine mammal'). -​ Denotation vs. Reference vs. Connotation: Denotation: Literal meaning. Reference: The specific instance a word points to (e.g., dog referring to a specific animal). Connotation: Additional associations or emotions tied to a word (e.g., DOG connotes 'home, friend'). -​ Equivalence: Semantic similarity between words in different languages, including both denotational and connotational aspects. -​ False friends: Words that look similar but have different meanings in different languages (e.g., actually vs. aktualnie). Semantic relations: -​ Horizontal (like siblings, as in synonymy, antonymy -​ Vertical (like parent vs. child, as in hyponymy Polysemy and homonymy:  -​ Polysemes: Words with multiple related meanings (e.g., zamek ‘lock’ and ‘zip’). -​ Homonyms: Unrelated words that share the same pronunciation or spelling but have different meanings (e.g., zamek ‘castle’ vs. zamek ‘lock’, red vs. read). Homographs: Same spelling, different meanings (e.g., zamek ‘castle’ vs. zamek ‘lock’). Homophones: Same pronunciation, different meanings or spelling (e.g., bear vs. bare). Synonymy and antonymy: -​ Synonyms: Different words that have nearly the same meaning (e.g., start vs. commence). -​ They have similar denotation but differ in: Connotations: Stylistic differences (e.g., formal vs. informal). Emotive charge: Emotional tone (e.g., positive, negative, or neutral) depending on the context. -​ Antonyms: Words that mean the opposite (e.g., good vs. bad, old vs. young). Hyponymy and meronymy: -​ Hyponymy: A relationship where a word's meaning is included within a more general term (e.g., woda and mleko are hyponyms of napój). -​ Meronymy: A relationship where a word represents a part of a whole concept (e.g., ear, nose, and mouth are meronyms of head). Semantic change: -​ Extension: Broadening of meaning (e.g., broadcast from ‘sow seeds’ to ‘transmit radio/TV programmes’). -​ Restriction: Narrowing of meaning (e.g., OE steorfan ‘to die’ > MnE starve ‘to die of hunger’). -​ Shift: Change in meaning (e.g., E dress ‘one-piece garment for a woman’ > P dres ‘tracksuit’). -​ Semantic change (attitudes): -​ Deterioration/pejoration: Negative shift in meaning (e.g., notorious from ‘widely known’ to ‘widely and unfavourably known’). -​ Amelioration: Positive shift in meaning (e.g., mischievous from ‘disastrous’ to ‘playfully annoying’). Semantic extensions: -​ Metaphor: A word is applied to an object or action to imply a resemblance (e.g., added fuel to the fire where ANGER is compared to FIRE). -​ Metonymy: A word that refers to an attribute is substituted for the thing it represents (e.g., She drank a whole bottle where bottle represents the drink inside). -​ Synecdoche: A part is substituted for a whole, or a whole for a part (e.g., America used to refer to the USA). Language contact -​ the use of more than one language in the same place at the same time -​ bilingualism - A bilingual person uses two languages for different things, with different people, and in various situations. They may not be fluent in both languages equally, as their fluency depends on how often and in what contexts they need each language. The level of fluency can vary based on the specific needs in different areas of life. -​ borrowing - typically defined as the influence of a foreign language on the native one Lexical borrowing: -​ Basic vocabulary, like words for body parts or natural phenomena, is less likely to be borrowed between languages. However, in cases of close and long-term contact, basic vocabulary can still be borrowed, such as the words skin, sky, and get from Old Norse to Old English. Nouns are the most commonly borrowed words, while verbs are harder to borrow. Types of lexical borrowings: -​ Loanwords, e.g. skaner ‘scanner’ -​ Calques/loan translations, e.g. drapacz chmur ‘skyscraper’ -​ Semantic loans, e.g. strona ‘page, web page’ -​ Loanblends/hybrids, e.g. Nowy Jork ‘New York’ -​ Pseudo-loans/anglicisms, e.g. happy end ‘happy ending’,dres ‘tracksuit’ -​ Native creations, e.g. sorka ‘sorry’ Adaption of borrowings: refers to the direct importation of a word from one language to another, while adaptation involves modifying the borrowed word to fit the structure of the receiving language. -​ Phonological: changing pronunciation to fit the sound system of the borrowing language. involves substituting sounds in a borrowed word with the closest equivalents in the target language, such as English "thriller" /θɹɪlə/ being adapted to Polish as /trilɛr/. Another example is a simplification of consonant clusters, like the Italian adaptation of "standard" [standar] or the Japanese version of "sexual harassment" [sɛkɯhaɾa]. Also assimilation. -​ Orthographic: altering the spelling to match the target language's alphabet or conventions. -​ Morphological: adjusting the word's form to align with the grammar of the borrowing language. involves adjusting borrowed words to fit the grammatical structure of the target language. In Polish, gender assignment is one such adaptation, such as "miss" being feminine and "whisky" also treated as feminine, similar to "wódka" (vodka). Additionally, borrowed words often undergo morphological changes in derivation (e.g., the English "manager" becoming masculine in Polish with the suffix -er) and  compounding (e.g., "business lunch" being masculine, following the gender of "lunch"). Furthermore, the reinterpretation of the English plural -s in Polish results in "keksy" (biscuits) and "chipsy" (crisps/chips). -​ Semantic: shifting the meaning of the borrowed word to fit the new context. Structural borrowing: -​ Morphology: Words like "-gate" are used to refer to scandals, e.g., "FOZZ-gate," meaning a major scandal. -​ Syntax: In Polish, adjectives can be used before nouns, such as "wirtualna rzeczywistość" (virtual reality) or "romaski język" (Romance language). -​ Discourse: Borrowed expressions or discourse markers like "sorry" and "wow" are used in conversation, and the informal second-person pronoun "ty" is often used in casual or familiar contexts. Types of transfer: -​ Substitution: When sounds in one language are replaced by those in another, e.g., the English /θ/ sound (like in "think") becomes /f, s, t/ in Polish. -​ Calque: Direct translation of a phrase, e.g., the English "stand before a problem" is translated into Polish in the same way. -​ Underdifferentiation: When a language lacks the distinction that exists in another language, e.g., Polish speakers might not differentiate between the English "quantity" and "quality" contrasts. -​ Overdifferentiation: When distinctions from the speaker's first language (L1) are applied in the second language (L2), e.g., English speakers might introduce distinctions between quantity and quality that don’t exist in Polish. -​ Rule transfer: Applying a rule from one language to another, e.g., in Polish, the regressive voicing assimilation rule might make the word "bags" pronounced as [bæks]. Code-switching: alternate use of two languages within an utterance or conversation Pidgins: an ‘emergency’ contact language, which develops in situations of extended contact without a means of verbal communication. It becomes creole when it is adopted as a native language. Terms of address Basic terms: -​ Verbal repertoire: linguistic varieties found in a speech community -​ Register: varieties based on occupation or topic, e.g. technical, medical -​ Style: varieties based on formality of situation, e.g. formal, informal Expressing social relationships:  -​ Social relationships such as solidarity, power, distance, respect, and intimacy can be expressed through: -​ Names, pronouns, and titles: These convey respect or familiarity, e.g., using formal titles like "Mr." or "Dr." versus first names or nicknames. -​ Degree of lexical, morphological, and syntactic complexity: More formal or complex language might signal respect or distance, while simpler, informal language can show familiarity or closeness. -​ Choice of sounds, stress, and intonation patterns: How something is said (e.g., tone of voice, emphasis on certain words) can indicate power dynamics, intimacy, or politeness. T-V distinction: -​ Intimate/familiar (T) vs. polite/deferential (V) forms, e.g. French (tu vs. vous), Polish ty vs. pan/i -​ Reciprocal/symmetrical usage: use of the same forms or structures (T vs. T, V vs. V) -​ Non-reciprocal/asymmetrical usage: use of forms associated with dierent levels of style (T vs. V) Terms of address in English: -​ FN (first name): e.g., John. -​ LN (last name): e.g., Chomsky. -​ TLN (title + last name): e.g., Mr. Chomsky, Professor Johnson, Father Brown. -​ T (title): e.g., Professor, Captain, Sir, Madam, Miss. -​ FN + LN (first and last name): e.g., John Smith. -​ KN (kin terms): e.g., Mom, Dad, Grannie; or KN + FN, e.g., Uncle Jack. -​ Terms of endearment: e.g., dear, honey, buddy, mate. -​ Nicknames: e.g., Mack, Joe. -​ 3rd person references: e.g., "Does Your Highness wish it?" for addressing someone with high respect or power. Polish: -​ Pronominal contrast (sg. vs. pl.): ty vs. wy -​ Pronouns and pseudo-pronouns/nouns used as address forms ty (T) pan/pani, panowie/panie, państwo (V) regional or dated wy (V) Language and gender Sex vs. gender: -​ Sex as a biological attribute of individuals (natural gender) -​ Gender as a social construct, with no direct mapping ontobiological sex (social gender) Grammatical gender in Polish: -​ The number of genders is based on agreement forms, e.g. ten pies vs. ta lampa vs. to okno (masculine, feminine, neuter). -​ Subgenders: masc. animate vs. masc. inanimate in the sg., e.g. mam pięknego psa vs. mam piękny dom masc. personal vs. non-masc. personal in the pl., e.g. mam starych kolegów vs. mam stare koleżanki/psy/domy Gender in Polish - special nouns: -​ Epicene nouns refer to both males and females but use only one set of grammatical agreement forms. For example, ta mysz (this mouse) can refer to both a male and female mouse. -​ Common gender nouns also denote both males and females but have separate agreement forms for each gender. For example, ten/ta sędzia (the judge) can refer to either a male or female judge, but uses different forms depending on the gender. -​ Hybrid nouns offer alternative forms for different gendered referents. Była to pierwsza osoba, która … Został on … (fem. vs. masc.) Ongoing changes: -​ Feminization: more frequent use of existing feminine forms and introduction of new ones, e.g. dyrygentka (cf. G Dirigentin ‘female conductor’) -​ Neutralization: gender-specic forms are replaced with neutral/indenite ones Nouns for occupations: klienci (masc.pers.) > klientela ‘clients’ Generic/gender-neutral pronouns, e.g. he or she, they; neopronouns, e.g. xe/xir/xirs Pragmatics -​ The study of the relation of linguistic signs to their users and other participants in an act of communication Types of utterances: -​ Constatives communicate information and can be evaluated in terms of their truth value, e.g. The Earth is round -​ Performatives are equivalent to actions, e.g. I promise I’ll never do it again. Elements of speech acts: -​ Example John: You feel like going to the gym? Anne: I’ve got an exam tomorrow … John: That’s right, I forgot. I’ll help you. -​ Locution, i.e. the utterance (e.g. I’ve got an exam tomorrow) -​ Illocutionary act/force, i.e. the meaning intended by the speaker (e.g. invitation in You feel like going to the gym?)  -​ Perlocutionary act/force, i.e. the effect of an utterance on the interlocutor (staying at home) Types of illocutionary acts: -​ Representatives commit the speaker to the truth of a proposition (believe, deny, conclude). -​ Commissives commit the speaker to a course of action (guarantee, promise, swear). -​ Expressives express the speaker’s attitude (apologize, congratulate). -​ Directives commit the hearer to act according to a proposition (ask, order, request). -​ Declarations alter the condition of a person/object/situation (repronounce, baptize). Direct and indirect acts of speech: -​ “the speaker’s wish or desire that the hearer will do something” (I would like you to go now) -​ “the hearer’s ability to do something” (Can you pass the salt?) -​ “the hearer’s actually doing something” (Aren’t you going to eat your cereal?) -​ “the hearer’s willingness or desire to do something” (Would you be willing to write a letter of recommendation for me?) -​ “the reasons for doing something” (You’re standing on my foot) Face - “the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself” Negative face - “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction – i.e., to freedom of action and freedom from imposition”. Positive face - “the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)” Politeness strategies: -​ Negative politeness: offering assurances that another person’s freedom will not be constrained, e.g. by apologizing for an imposition “I’m sorry, could you shut the window?” -​ Positive politeness: expressing appreciation of another person’s value, e.g. by highlighting friendliness, compliments “You look cold. Shouldn’t we shut the window?” Face-threatening acts: → Negative face, e.g. orders, advice, threats, orders → Positive face, e.g. expressions of criticism, insults; raising of emotional or divisive topics ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​