GEOG 3900 Chapter 1 (The Big Picture) 1-62 PDF

Chapter 1: The Big Picture Lecture Notes by Queen Roach 1  Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, students will 1. Learn and understand the religions and belief systems of the Asia 2. Understand the diversity of this r...

Chapter 1: The Big Picture Lecture Notes by Queen Roach 1  Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter, students will 1. Learn and understand the religions and belief systems of the Asia 2. Understand the diversity of this region in terms political institutions, religion, culture, customs and traditions 3. Learn about the brief history of the region 4. Learn about the social construction and landscape of the region 5. Understand the rising economic giants of the region 6. Learn about the new global order 2  Belief Systems in Asia Religion can be loosely defined as a specific belief system about a God, gods, or spirits, expressed through a code of conduct, ethics, forms of worship, and rituals - nearly all religion acknowledge a supernatural realm. It includes social, ethical, and ceremonial elements combined with the belief in an unseen world. Belief systems practiced by a quarter of the world’s population originated in this region 1. Hinduism (India) 2. Buddhism (India, Nepal, etc.) 3. Sikhism (India) 4. Confucianism (China) 5. Daoism/Taosim (China) 6. Shintoism (Japan) 7. Islam 8. Christianity 9. Ancestor Veneration (China) 10. Animism 3 4 1. Hinduism is the largest ethnic religion and the world’s third largest religion with ~1 billion adherents It is not a global, but a cultural faith concentrated in a single geographic realm and is regarded as the worlds oldest organized religion. Vast majority of the Hindus live in India, although Hinduism extends into Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Nepal. Symbol: Aum, also written “Om” and called pranava – it is the most important mula (root) mantra and is thus chanted at the beginning of many prayers, mantras, and rituals. 2. Islam is the second largest universalizing religion with over 1.5 billion adherents. In Arabic, Islam means “submitting to the will of God”. It arose in the western Arabia area in the 6th Century - it is today the fastest growing of the world’s major religions. Islam is the world’s fastest-growing religion today, consisting of about 23% of the global population. It is the dominant religion of Northern Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, Malaysia and Indonesia. Christianity and Islam together hold the allegiance of nearly half the world’s population. 5 3. Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophy and belief system from ancient China, which laid the foundation for much of Chinese culture. Confucius was a philosopher and teacher who lived from 551 to 479 B.C.E. His thoughts on ethics, good behavior, and moral character were written down by his disciples in several books, the most important being the Lunyu. Confucianism believes in ancestor worship and human-centered virtues for living a peaceful life. The golden rule of Confucianism is “Do not do unto others what you would not want others to do unto you.” Symbol: no official symbol or standard icon. The symbol most commonly used to represent Confucianism is the Chinese character for water, which represents life. There is no specific place of worship for Confucianism. There are public temples where incense may be burnt as an offering, but there are no religious services in the traditional sense. 6 4. Daoism or Taoism is a religion and a philosophy from ancient China that has influenced folk and national belief. Taoism has been connected to the philosopher Lao Tzu, who around 500 B.C.E. wrote the main book of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching. Taoism holds that humans and animals should live in balance with the Tao, or the universe. Taoists believe in spiritual immortality, where the spirit of the body joins the universe after death. Taoist worship in Tao temples Symbol: The symbol for Yin Yang is called the Taijitu - yin yang symbol in the west. Yin Yang is the concept of duality forming a whole. E.g., night (Yin) and day (Yang), female (Yin) and male (Yang), etc. 5. Shintoism: Shinto means the way of the gods. Shintoism is an ancient religion of Japan. It started at least as long ago as 1000 B.C.E. The followers of Shintoism believe that spiritual powers exist in the natural world. They believe that spirits called "kami" live in natural places such as in animals, plants, stones, mountains, rivers, people and even the dead - Shintoism focuses particularly on nature and ancestor worship. 7  Symbol: The main symbol of Shintoism is the Torii gate (red symbolic gate that divides the profane world and the spirit world). 6. Animism: The definition of animism is the idea that all things—including people, animals, geographic features, natural phenomenon, and inanimate objects - possess a spirit that connects them to one another – Ganges, Kedarnath, Gangotri, banyan tree, Cobra etc. Each being is considered a spirit that can offer help or harm to humans. As such, spirits must either be worshiped or appeased. Animists offer sacrifices, prayers, dances, or other forms of devotions to these spirits in hopes of blessing upon areas of life (crops, health, fertility, etc.) or for protection from harm. Animism as an ethnic religion does not seek to convert others to the religion. Animists are not apart of a larger religion although some different branches of Animism are: Native American and Voodoo. Religious traditions of animism is passed down orally with mythology and fables, holy books were never needed. Symbol: There are no exclusive symbols representing animism. 8  Symbols of Faith Hinduism Confucianism Daoism/Taoism Shintoism 9 Symbol of Christianity Symbol of Islam 10 11 3. Buddhism claims slightly less than 350 million adherents – it is the fourth largest religion. Buddhism was founded in Northern India by the first known Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama. Today, Buddhism is a majority faith in Southeast Asia, China, and Japan. Buddhism consists of three primary branches: 1. Mahayana Buddhism - Prevalent in China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam 2. Theravada Buddhism - Prevalent in Thailand, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos and Burma (Myanmar) 3. Vajrayana, or Tibetan Buddhism - Prevalent in Tibet, Nepal, Mongolia, Bhutan, and parts of Russia and northern India There are also several subsects of Buddhism, including Zen The Dharma Chakra Buddhism, and Nirvana Buddhism. Each of these types reveres certain texts and has slightly different interpretations of Buddha’s teachings. 12  Dharma, the Noble Truths, & the Eight-Fold Path Buddha’s teachings are known as “dharma.” He taught that wisdom, kindness, patience, generosity and compassion were important virtues. All According to Buddha the four Noble Buddhists live by five moral precepts, which Truths could be achieved by following an prohibit: Eightfold Path - teaches the ideals for ethical conduct, mental disciple and achieving 1. Killing living things wisdom: 2. Taking what is not given 3. Sexual misconduct 1. Right understanding (Samma ditthi) 4. Lying 2. Right thought (Samma sankappa) 5. Using drugs or alcohol 3. Right speech (Samma vaca) The Four Noble Truths, which Buddha taught, are: 4. Right action (Samma kammanta) 5. Right livelihood (Samma ajiva) 1. The truth of suffering (dukkha) 6. Right effort (Samma vayama) 2. The truth of the cause of suffering 7. Right mindfulness (Samma sati) (samudaya) 8. Right concentration (Samma samadhi) 3. The truth of the end of suffering (nirhodha) 4. The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga) 13  Sacred Buddhist Texts and Scriptures Some sacred Buddhist texts and scriptures are: 1. Tipitaka: These texts, known as the “three baskets,” are thought to be the earliest collection of Buddhist writings. 2. Sutras: There are more than 2,000 sutras, which are sacred teachings embraced mainly by Mahayana Buddhists. 3. The Book of the Dead: This Tibetan text describes the stages of death in detail. 14  Folk Religion is any ethnic or cultural religious practice that falls outside the doctrine of organized religion – it is grounded on popular beliefs and sometimes called popular or vernacular religion. Folk religion is usually followed by those who do not claim any official religious doctrine. It lacks the organizational structure of mainstream religions, and its practice is often limited geographically. Folk religions can absorb elements of liturgically prescribed religions – e.g., Shenism, or Chinese folk religion. Shenism is most closely related to Taoism, but it also features blended elements of Confucianism, Chinese mythological deities, and Buddhist beliefs about Karma. Some folk religions can also exist entirely independently, like the Vietnamese Dao Mau religion. Folk religion has no sacred text or theological doctrine. It is concerned with the everyday understanding of spirituality rather than with rites and rituals. Elements of Folk Religion: believe in the evil eye, rituals to ward off evil, curses, demons, witchcraft, belief in traditional magic systems, hoodoo, voodoo, etc. As of 2010, an estimated 405 million people (~6% of the world's total population) were adherents of folk or traditional religions, and that number is expected to grow to 450 million by 2050 (Pew Research Center, 2016). Folk Religions Details | Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures 15 16  Christianity in Asia Changes within Asian Christianity have been profound. The majority of Christians in 1900 were Catholic and Orthodox, mainly in Western Asia, the Indian subcontinent and the Philippines. By 2020 the balance had shifted to Independent churches, especially house churches in China. Anglicans (absorbed into the Protestant union churches in India and Pakistan) have declined in proportion to the population, whereas Orthodox churches have consistently decreased through immigration to the West and the North. Catholics and Protestants have fared better, as their mission activities have been effective in encouraging indigenous populations to accept Christianity. The fastest current growth rates are found in South Asia and Southeastern Asia. Mongolia and Nepal are notable for significant Christian growth since 1990 and represent some of the newest expressions of Christianity in the world. Christians in these countries are grappling with what it means to be both Mongolian or Nepalese and authentically Christian. Cambodia has likewise experienced substantial growth in Christianity since 1990. In both Nepal and Cambodia this is due to vigorous missions and evangelistic activities, along with relatively loose state restrictions. 17 18  Changes in Religious Makeup in Asia Asia has experienced profound changes in its religious makeup since the beginning of the 20th century. Chinese folk-religionists and Buddhists, who made up over 50% of Asia’s population in 1900, fell to under 23% by 2020. Adherence to ethnic (traditional) religions also fell slowly over the century, from 5.3% of Asia’s population in 1900 to 3.4% in 2020. At the same time, the Hindu population and total share grew, though Hindus are still concentrated on the Indian subcontinent. Muslims grew at a somewhat faster pace and displaced Chinese folk-religionists as the continent’s largest religion, with 27.4% of the population in 2020. Christians grew twice as fast as the general population over the 20th century and represent 8.2% of Asia’s population in 2020. 19  Projected Growth of Major Religious Groups in Asia-Pacific: 2010-2050 Hindus were the largest religious group in the Asia-Pacific region as of 2010, with about 1 billion adherents - the number of Hindus is expected to grow to nearly 1.4 billion by 2050 - Hindus also are expected to increase as a share of the region’s population, rising from 25% in 2010 to nearly 28% in 2050. Muslims are projected to grow even faster and become the largest religious group in the region by mid- century. The Muslim population in Asia and the Pacific is expected to increase by almost 50% to nearly 1.5 billion in 2050 - Muslims are projected to make up nearly 30% of the region’s population in 2050, up from 24% in 2010. The number of Buddhists in the Asia-Pacific region is projected to drop (from 481 million in 2010 to 476 million in 2050) - the Buddhist share of the Asia-Pacific population is expected to drop from nearly 12% in 2010 to less than 10% in 2050. The Christian population in Asia and the Pacific is expected to grow by about 33%, rising from 287 million in 2010 to 381 million in 2050. The Christian share of the population is expected to increase slightly, from just over 7% to nearly 8%. The number of people in the region who are religiously unaffiliated is expected to decrease between 2010 and 2050, falling from nearly 860 million to about 838 million - The proportion of the region’s population belonging to folk religions also is forecast to decline, from 9% in 2010 to about 7% in 2050.20 21 22  History and Effects of Colonization 23 Colonization is the subjugation of a people or area especially as an extension of state power. Exploring the history of colonization in Asia can help us understand more about how society today in certain Asian countries was shaped and formed and how colonization impacted these countries. Modern colonization began around the 15th century. 1. The second agricultural revolution 2. The industrial Revolution had a massive effect. It emerged primarily to meet the demands of the European Industrial Revolution and industries grew in the region. Many important ports were established during colonial period. Furthermore, ports and other connectivity-infrastructure was put in place in the colonial era. Thus, European powers laid the foundation in the transformation of traditional Southeast Asian economy into a modern market-based economy. Colonization by western powers of the Asian region had far reaching impact upon the political, economic, demographic, geographic, social, and cultural fabric, which can be seen till now. The transformation of Southeast Asia from traditional kingdoms to modern nation-states with the installation of bureaucratic systems, courts of law are all effects of colonialism. Civil liberties, rights, the concept of separation of power, the direct election of the president, and the system of checks and balances were all brought by the British and the American into the region. The presence of Catholicism in the region is also a colonial inheritance.  Colonization Colonialism had a lasting impact on the demography as well. Owing to increased economic activity to extract raw materials, build industrial units etc., there was a huge demand for labor, resulting in the immigration of people from neighboring regions. Christianity and Western ideals of the Europeans influenced Southeast Asian society and culture - western political system and better education method came up into the region. Mother countries such as Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands were driven by money and power and enabled by advanced weapons and technology to expand and develop political and economic influences in Asia, the Americas, and Africa. In Asia, interaction was based on trade and global expansion. As a region, Asia was distinctly different than the New World (the Americas) and Africa - Asia was highly advanced, with prosperous civilizations and strong militaries. Because of this, the Europeans established a trade “presence” in port cities and along the coastal regions of Asia. This trade led to a change in Asian economies. CHINA: From the 1700s, there was a strong British presence in China; however, the British never officially took over China but had a strong political influence. The first signs of economic imperialism were during the mid-1500s when Portuguese traders paid for access to ports in Macau on China’s far south-east coast. 24  Colonization of China and Korea In 1711, the British East India Company established a trading post there. British imperialism in China was based on economic incentives; in the British market, there was a high demand for Chinese tea, silk, and porcelain. In the late 1800s, China was carved up into “spheres of influence” by powers such as Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan, who negotiated with regional officials and warlords to establish their own “spheres of influence” and held strong influence over trade and the military. These “spheres of influence” functioned similarly to virtual colonies within China. Korea was part of the Chinese “tribute system” for many centuries. However, as the Qing Empire declined and Western powers competed in East Asia, many imperial powers became interested in Korea, and countries such as Britain, France, and the United States tried to start trade with Korea and implement diplomatic relations, but Korea resisted. In the last quarter of the 19th century, Japan, China, and Russia were the main rivals for influence until Japan defeated China and Russia in a war between 1895 and 1905. After that, Japan became the predominant power in Korea and annexed Korea as a colony in 1910. At the end of World War II, Japan lost and surrendered to the Allies. The location of the 38th Parallel crippled the economy on both sides. The US-appointed Syngman Rhee, an anti-communist leader, to rule South Korea, while the Soviets appointed Kim Il-sung as leader of North Korea. 25  Colonization of Korea and Vietnam An agreement was made between the Soviet Union and the US that the Soviet Union would occupy the north of Korea while the US would occupy the south of Korea until the establishment of an independent and unified Korean government. Elections were planned to be held in 1948 to reunify Korea, but the US and the Soviet Union did not trust each other. By 1947, the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the US and the differences in politics between Koreans of the two occupation zones made it difficult to negotiate a unified government, as the US wanted Korea to be democratic and capitalist while the Soviets wanted Korea to be communist. Vietnam: French occupation of Vietnam started around the 1880s and lasted more than six decades. During this time, Vietnam was a part of French Indochina, which also included Laos and Cambodia - The nation was split into three different provinces: Tonkin (north), Annam (central coast), and Cochinchina (south). French colonialism focused mainly on production, profit, and labor since Vietnam was abundant in supplies of zinc, tin, and coal, as well as cash crops like rubber, rice, coffee, and tea. The political management of French Indochina was left to a series of governors who held a lot of power; the emperors of Vietnam had little power over politics and were only figurehead monarchs. The French seized large areas of land and reorganized them into large plantations. 26  Colonization of Vietnam The French heavily taxed the Vietnamese people to fund public works, which devastated the rural economy and created great wealth inequalities. Japan invaded Vietnam in 1940, which caused mixed reactions among the Vietnamese, as some believed that Japanese occupation would be better than French occupation, while others believed that the Japanese were no different than the French. After Japan’s defeat in World War II, Japan withdrew its forces from Vietnam, leaving Emperor Bao Dai in control. French occupation influenced various factors such as architecture, food, and education. During the French occupation, traditional temples, pagodas, monuments, and buildings were destroyed and replaced by French-styled buildings, which you can see throughout different cities in Vietnam. Vietnamese food such as banh mi, bo kho, and banh xeo took influence from French cuisine. In terms of education, the French opened primary schools with lessons in both French and Vietnamese languages and in 1902, colonists opened the University of Hanoi. 27  Colonization of the Philippines Before the arrival of Spanish missionaries and explorers, Islam was introduced in the Philippines through trade with merchants from Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Middle East in the late 14th century. It wasn’t until the 16th century when Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, brought Catholicism - arrived on Homonhon Island in 1521 and claimed the lands in the name of Spain. The Spanish had three objectives in the Philippines: to take part in the spice trade, to develop contacts with China and Japan to send Christian missionaries, and to convert the Filipinos to Christianity - Within 25 years, around a quarter of a million Filipinos converted to Christianity, which at the time was half of the entire population. The Spanish saw the Filipinos as “savages” and believed that they needed to be “controlled and civilized” - the idea that the Spanish were “superior” led to what is known as “colonial mentality”, the feelings of inferiority due to the white standards of the colonizers. Under the Spanish rule, the Church and state were inseparable. The Spanish introduced the institution of private land ownership which led to much of native landholding ending up in private hands. This exposed the native population to more economic exploitation and changed the structure of indigenous society - the Tagalogs became tenants, sharecroppers, and paid or unpaid farm laborers. During US colonization (1898), English became the official language of the Philippines, and also became a sign of higher social status. 28  Colonization of India The discovery of sea routes to India around 1498 caught European’s attention and European powers quickly came to India to get their own trading post, eventually becoming interested in gaining territory, such as the British. In 1599, the British East India Company was formed under a charter that was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1600 and the British merchants and aristocrats held shares in the joint-stock company. The British East India Company came to India to trade in spices, silk, cotton, indigo dye, tea, and opium. Eventually, the Company started to intervene in politics in India and slowly changed from a trading company into a ruling one. After the revolt of 1857, the British East India Company officially claimed dominance over India, and on August 2, 1858, the British government officially established rule over India. The India Act transferred control to the British crown, and the period of British rule was known as the British Raj (1858 – 1947). The British economic policies were repressive and benefited off the people of India. Laws were passed to force Indian citizens to produce crops for use in English factories instead of producing crops for food. The British controlled the government, tax collection, and determined what passed for justice, in which 29 Indians were excluded from all these functions.  Colonization of India The British East India Company established private armies made up of Indian soldiers known as “sepoys”, who were trained in the latest European military standard to maintain order and defend trading centers and were extremely loyal to British officers. British rule struggled in the late 19th century and early 20th century because of several factors such as the Indian Independence Movement, which occurred from 1857 to 1947. British colonization of India affected certain aspects, such as the economy. During the British Raj, agriculture in India became commercialized and crops were harvested more for sale rather than consumption at home. Because of the Industrial Revolution, the demand for raw materials such as sugarcane and raw cotton for British industries increased. The exploitation of India drained and weakened the economy of India. In some areas, commercialization increased so much that people could not produce food crops for themselves to eat. Land previously used to produce food crops changed to grow non-food crops such as raw materials. This contributed to the many famines that people in India suffered from. The British also introduced a democratic system and transformed India from independent monarchical states to a united nation. 30  Affects of Modern Colonization Modern colonization affected Asia in several ways, one of them being beauty standards. Throughout Asia, darker skin tones are seen as “ugly” while lighter skin tones are seen as “ideal” and fair. Throughout many Asian countries, darker skin tones are associated with lower classes while lighter skin tones are associated with the wealthy. Skin-whitening products are popular in several Asia countries, as they promise “flawless beauty and skin.” Western ideals affected LGBTQ+ rights in Asia as well. Throughout the history of Asia, Asian countries have had a thriving LGBTQ+ community with many known figures being a part of the community. However, many of the homophobic and transphobic laws and ideals came around the same time as the Western powers made their presence in Asia. In China, derogatory terms for men who have sexual relationships with other men appeared around the same time when Christian missionaries began to spread teachings that homosexuality was a sin. In India, the British Raj criminalized sodomy and tried to outlaw the community of Hijra. The laws established under British rule perpetuated the idea that the gender binary was the norm. 31  History of Globalization The history of commodity exchange and specialization since 1400 can be analyzed in three eras: 1. First Era: Long distance trade in the pre 18th century period was strictly limited to non-competing goods: Europe imported spices, silk, sugar and gold which were not found in Europe and exported silver, linens and woolens to Asia. Since these goods do not have substitutes in importing countries, trade in these goods did not have an effect on domestic production. Their presence or absence had an impact only on the living standards of the very rich. 2. Second Era: It starts in the early 19th century with rise of trade in basic competing goods such as wheat and textile – the classic Hecksher-Ohlin (H-O) theory. As a result of trade in basic goods prices of these goods converged. The globalization forces had a big income distribution effect on long distance trading partners. Land abundant countries exported food & raw materials to the capital & labor abundant but land scarce European continent. 3. Third Era (Present): This era witnesses the trade in both basic and highly differentiated manufactured goods. It is characterized as the rising dominance of skills and new technologies. It’s very difficult to characterize this era with a simple trade model. 32  The 19th Century Contains the Big Globalization Bang Voyages of Discovery (Christopher Columbus’ discovery of Americas (1492) & Vasco da Gama’s end run around Africa (1498)) has an important effect on the world economy but in the long term - It is not the immediate cause of the globalization. Globalization requires a break down of monopolies, controlling long distance trade, technological revolution that makes the transportation easy and cheap leading domestic price changes and reallocation of resources - These fundamental conditions were not satisfied prior to 19th century. The Pre 19th century trade was sufficiently expensive that only luxury goods were traded. This means that countries then were not fully integrated. H-O model suggests that in order for globalization to have an effect on welfare of a country it should change income distribution in a trading country. This did not happen till 19th century. There was little or no price convergence before 19th century. If globalization was strong enough to have an effect on income distribution within a country, we should observe intensive political battles prior to 19th century but we do not. Now we observe political bargaining across countries regarding trade - This also shows that countries were not integrated till 19th century. 33  Globalization Globalization is the integration of world economies - the opening of local and nationalistic perspectives to a broader outlook of an interconnected and interdependent world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services across national frontiers. In order for globalization to have an independent effect on an economy two conditions must hold: 1. Trade creating forces should change domestic commodity prices. 2. The change in prices should change resource allocation between economic activities. These conditions ensure the integration of economies; not discoveries, flows of gold, silver, size of trade profits which are all ‘rent seeking’ behavior of countries. Globalization leads to: a. Reduction of poverty and growth of the middle classes b. Positive competition c. Growth in inequality between some socio-economic groups d. Geopolitical changes: Potential for conflict – e.g., oil, Uranium, Lithium, Gold, Silver, etc. e. Changes in technology, knowledge, and people power Multinational companies (MNC): are companies that have facilities in different countries, and usually have a centralized head office where they coordinate global management. 34  The “Digital Divide” The term “digital divide” refers to the significant differences in the level of digital competency and the extent of digital infrastructure between developed and developing countries – it is an economic and social inequality with regard to access, use of, or impact of information and communication technologies. Approximately 87% of people in developed countries have Internet access while only 47% of people have it in developing countries. The divide also spans gender, social, and accessibility fields - It disproportionately affects certain subgroups like women, disabled and socially disconnected individuals. Consequences: Individuals lacking digital access have an educational disadvantage, face social isolation and economic devastation. In developing countries, these effects compound with additional societal factors such as poverty, corruption or conflict – resulting in an unskilled labor force limited to basic manufacturing and subsistence agriculture. Breaking this cycle can only be accomplished through digital investment and accompanying tech education. 35  Digital Divide in the Southeast Asian Region The Southeast Asian Region plays an important role on the global stage - made up of 643 million people, thousands of ethnic groups, and 12 countries. This region has a young average population age and regional integration through the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Governance in Southeast Asia varies from country-to-country from Communist Vietnam and Laos to the military junta of Myanmar or the vibrant democracy of Malaysia. These governmental differences reflect the digital divide in Southeast Asia Internet penetration varies widely from country to country. o Developed Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei have internet accessibility rates of > 80%. o Indonesia and Thailand < 60% along with impoverished Myanmar and Vietnam. The Urban and Rural Divide: Even in developing countries, many urban universities successfully transitioned online while isolated, rural schools and businesses fell by the wayside. 36 37 38  The Divide When mapped, the differences in Internet access between the Global North and South are apparent The Brandt Line: is an invisible line across the world that divides the rich north from the poor south. It corresponds with the divide between economically developed and industrialized countries and those countries that are less economically developed. However, as of 2014, some of the southern countries have become newly industrialized and are becoming richer - Mexico, Brazil, South Africa, India and China - This change is due to a shift from agriculture to manufacturing, exporting goods, and stable governments. In areas where Internet access is limited, or where newspapers exist in vernacular languages, newspaper circulation has increased in recent years. The largest gains have occurred in Asia, primarily in India and China, followed by more modest increases in Africa and Latin America. WAN-IFRA succinctly summarizes its data with the declaration that “Print circulation rises in East, sets in West,” and notes that increased literacy and economic growth in those areas have fueled its expansion. 39 MEDC LEDC 40 41  Globally, the number of Internet users increased from only 413 million in 2000 to over 3.4 billion in 2016. China and India take the top two slots despite having only 50 and 26 %, respectively in 2016 -17 (Our World in Data 2019) Figures for household access reveal the extent to which this digital divide remains geographical: 84 % of households are connected in Europe, compared with 15.4 % in the African region.” Share of the population using the Internet, 42 2019 (ourworldindata.org)  Development and Geography Although capitalist industrialization and colonialism deepened inequalities between regions of the world, it was not until the mid-twentieth century that the international politics of inequality truly emerged. Decolonization resulted in the entry into international society of a large number of underdeveloped and economically insecure states with recent experience of colonial domination by the European powers. Former colonies gained the status of sovereign nation-states, swelling the ranks of the ‘have-nots’ within international society - The result was a set of new and urgent claims about international justice. The majority of people living in the 21st century have a higher standard of living, earn more money, are healthier, and live longer than was the case for people 50 years ago. However, the wealth disparity between those at the bottom and those at the top remains greater than ever before - According to Credit Suisse’s Global Wealth Report, the globe's richest 1% (of people) control more than half of the world's wealth highlighting the growing gap between the super-rich and everyone else - their share of the globe’s total wealth increased from 42.5% in 2008 (financial crisis) to 50.1% in 2017, or $140tn - 23.9m new millionaires have been created since 2000, including 7.9m in Europe. While the world’s 3.5 billion poorest adults each have assets ,< $10,00. Collectively these people, who account for 70% of the world’s working age population, account for just 2.7% of global wealth (Credit Suisse’s global wealth report) 43 44 45  Measuring Economic Development of Countries There is no universally accepted standard of measuring economic development. Common Indices of Measurement are: 1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): the total value of goods produced, and services provided in a country during, one year. 2. Gross National Product (GNP): measures the total monetary value of the total output produced by a country's residents. Any output produced by foreign residents within the country’s borders must be excluded in calculations of GNP, while any output produced by the country’s residents outside of its borders must be counted. 3. Gross National Income (GNI): is the total amount of money earned by a nation’s people and businesses. The number includes the nation’s GDP plus the income it receives from overseas sources. It is used to measure and track a nation's wealth from year to year. 4. Net national product (NNP): is the monetary value of finished goods and services produced by a country's citizens, overseas and domestically, in a given period. It is the equivalent of GNP, the total value of a nation's annual output, minus the amount of GNP required to purchase new goods to maintain existing stock, otherwise known as depreciation. 46  The primary factors used to distinguish developed countries from developing countries are: 1. GNI per capita (per person) 2. GDP per capita (per person) They are important indicators of economic performance and a useful unit to make cross- country comparisons of average living standards and economic wellbeing. GDP and GNI per capita figures are calculated by dividing a country’s GDP/GNI for a given year, by its population. Example: a country with a GDP of $1 billion and a population of 50,000 has a GDP per capita of $20,000. 47  Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is an economic theory that allows for the comparison of the purchasing power of various world currencies to one another. It is the theoretical exchange rate at which you can buy the same amount of goods and services with another currency. According to this concept, two currencies are in equilibrium or at par, taking into account the exchange rate - the quantity of the currency needed to purchase a given unit of a good, or common basket of goods and services. The purchasing power parity calculation tells you how much things would cost if all countries used the same currency. In other words, it is the rate at which one currency would need to be exchanged to have the same purchasing power as another currency. Purchasing power is determined by the relative cost of living and inflation rates in different countries. It is used worldwide to compare the income levels in different countries - The World Bank computes PPP for each country in the world. For many developing countries, the PPP is estimated using a multiple of the official exchange rate (OER) measure. For developed countries, the OER and PPP measures are more similar because the standards of living in developed countries are closer to those of the United States. Exchange Rate: 1 USD = 74.83 Rupees (2/2/22); Example: a pair of shoes costing Rs. 2,500.00 will cost $33.41 48 49 50  There is no single test to measure development of a country. 1. One way to rate a country’s level of development is by the gross national income (GNI) per capita. 2. Signs of a high level of development include industrialization and the everyday use of advanced technology. 3. Levels of education are also related to development. Developed countries usually have higher literacy rates, meaning most of their population can read and write. 4. Developed countries have a high life expectancy, or the average number of years a person can expect to live. Japan, a highly developed nation, has the highest life expectancy of any country, at 82.7 years. 5. The age structure in developed countries usually has its largest population group between 15 and 64 years old. 6. The unemployment rate can also be an indicator of the level of economic development. The unemployment rate is often below 10 % in developed countries. In developing countries, the unemployment rate can be as high as 95 %. Example: Unemployment rate in U.S. - 8.31 %; India – 7.11%; Lesotho – 24.65% ; Bukirno Faso - 77%; Syria (50%); Haiti – 40.6% (MacroTrends 2021). 51  With a projected annual growth rate of over 5.5% per year, ASEAN is forecast to overtake the EU and Japan to become the 4th largest economy in the world by 2050, behind China, India, and the United States. This projected growth is supported by favorable demographics: o > 380 million people are under age 35 in ASEAN (58% of the population) - ~ 20% larger than the entire population of the U.S. o ASEAN also has the world’s 3rd largest labor force, trailing only China and India. 52 53 7. Developed countries usually have a large middle class. Middle-class incomes fall between poverty and great wealth. Some developing countries have large populations living in poverty. In China, 50.8 % of the population belong to the middle class (2018). 10 million people degraded from the middle-income tier in the year 2020 (Pew Research Center Report, 2020). 60% of Indian are poor – the pandemic has had an immense impact on the middle-class population of India, shrinking by 32 million and bringing 75 million people under the poverty line in the year 2020, mainly due to the major recession (Pew Research Center report, 2020). The poor people are said to be living on 2USD or less every day, whereas low-income people thrive on a range of 2.01USD-10USD, middle-income people on a range of $10.01-$20, upper-middle-income people survive on a range of $20.01-$50, and high income lives on more than 50 USD. 7. As countries begin to develop, their agricultural output usually increases. Improved technology allows fewer farmers to harvest more food. This raises the income of people in rural areas, as well as allowing more people to work in jobs outside agriculture. 8. Another sign of development is a growth in exports. 9. The amount of electricity used by a country can also indicate its level of development. Electricity is used in homes, schools, and businesses. Electrification, especially in rural areas, is an important process for a developing economy. 54  ASEAN's middle class is expected to more than double in size from 135 million (24% of ASEAN's population) to 334 million (51% of the population) by 2030. Sustainable urbanization is a key part of this demographic growth It is estimated that nearly 70% of ASEAN’s population will live in urban areas by 2050. 55  Asian emerging markets are expected to lead the way in middle class expansion - the biggest shifts in history. The Asia-Pacific region will eclipse all others in terms of middleclass growth, moving from 28 % of the world's middle class in 2009 to 54 % in 2020 and 66 % by 2030 (OECD) Nearly half of this anticipated growth will come from China and India alone - China is expected to have one billion among its middle class, while India will have approximately 500 million. 56  Classification of Global/World Economies A global economy is an economic interdependence established between the most influential countries that drives the worldwide economic environment. It is also the aggregate economic output, movement and influence of all countries. Using economic indicators like the GNI per capita, the UN has classified world economies in the following categories: 1. MDCs /Developed Country/ Industrialized Country / More Economically Developed Country (MEDC): is a sovereign state that has highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations : a GNI per capita $12,056 or more. Example: U.S. GNI per capita $ 64,610 (World Bank, 2020), Canada, Japan, most of western Europe, including the U. K. and France. 2. Lesser Developed Countries (LDCs): are countries that are considered lacking in terms of economy, infrastructure, and industrial base. The population of a LDCs often have a relatively low standard of living, due to low incomes, and abundant poverty. LDCs are usually un-modernized and poor in terms of GNI per capita of $1,000 or less – GNI of Niger- $427, Yemen - $709, Pakistan -$5,840 57  Characteristics of the LEDCS LEDCs rely primarily on agriculture Industrial practice usually contribute to less than 10% of the nation's GDP. A developing country is considered as, “Commodity Dependent Developing Country” (CDDC), when its commodity export revenues contribute for more than 60 % of its total good export earnings. When this share exceeds 80%, the country is considered “strongly commodity export dependent.” Example: Many African, Arab, and Asian nations are considered to be LDCs. 58  Economic Means Used by the LDCS LDCs borrow money from MDCs to quench their growing economic appetite. International Finance and Capitalism are the preferred methods of control over developing nations, leading many underdeveloped countries to 1. Owe developed nations a significant amount of money (debt-trap diplomacy) 2. Suffer from reliance on importing finished goods and exporting natural resources. Cash crop: is an agricultural crop that is grown, strictly to be sold in a market environment for as much money as possible. Most cash crops are grown in a monoculture environment, where they are the only product grown on a piece of land - tobacco, wheat, grains, rubber, corn, cotton, etc. Sale of Natural Assets: are assets of the natural environment. These consist of biological assets (produced or wild): land and water areas with their ecosystems, sub- soil assets, and air. Ecological bankruptcy: Occurs when countries exhaust their environmental capital which have a drastic long-term effect on the environment. 59  Countries by GDP per capita https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gnp.pcap.pp.cd?view=map https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/USA/DEU 60 World Economies 61  In some cases, the dependence is extreme. There are 35 countries in the world for which more than 90% of their exports are commodities. For Angola, Iraq, Chad, Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria, this share surpasses 98%, and in some instances a single product constitutes more than three-quarters of all export revenue. In contrast, this share increases to 64% for developing countries, and is higher still - at 85% - for the world’s least-developed countries. In other words, export concentration of primary commodities is linked to underdevelopment; the higher the dependence, the lower the country’s development, measured by its GDP per capita. Ramifications: ✓ Economic: When a country’s economy is not diversified and relies heavily on basic products, it puts itself at the mercy of international market prices. When prices go down, employment, exports, and government revenue suffer. ✓ Environmental: the only way to earn more is to produce more - This puts pressure on their natural resources, which compromises sustainability. ✓ Social: In case of capital-intensive sectors like mining and farming - As countries open up to trade, the benefits in large part accrue to the owners of capital, and not to the workers, who may work under very tough conditions - part of the low value-added segments of international food supply 62 chains, and thus farmers get very low returns.