Foundation of Empirical Social Research (ESR) PDF

Foundation of Empirical Social Research (ESR) DR ARKADIUSZ TOMCZYK ARKADIUSZ.TOMCZYK@FH -KREMS.AC.AT Session Qualitative Methods Qualitative research As a term, ‘qualitative research’ is sometimes taken to imply an approach to business research in which quantitative data are not collect...

Foundation of Empirical Social Research (ESR) DR ARKADIUSZ TOMCZYK ARKADIUSZ.TOMCZYK@FH -KREMS.AC.AT Session Qualitative Methods Qualitative research As a term, ‘qualitative research’ is sometimes taken to imply an approach to business research in which quantitative data are not collected or generated. Many writers on qualitative research are critical of such a rendition of qualitative research, because the distinctiveness of qualitative research does not reside solely in the absence of numbers. Qualitative research Meanings are derived from words and images – not numbers Data that have not been quantified – often non-numeric - ? Methods that used are unstructured or semi-structured Naturalistic and interactive research process Sampling that has mostly non-probability (non-random) techniques The main difference between two methods is not of quality but of ‘procedure’ Concept of qualitative research For most qualitative researchers, concepts are very much part of the landscape in qualitative research. The way in which concepts are developed and employed is often rather different from that implied in the quantitative research strategy Social researchers should recognize that the concepts they use are sensitizing concepts in that they provide “a general sense of reference and guidance in approaching empirical instances”. Concepts should be employed in such a way that they give a very general sense of what to look for and act as a means for uncovering the variety of forms that the phenomena to which they refer can assume. Key aspects of qualitative research ▪Rich and thick data on the phenomena – people’s feelings, thoughts, perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, actions, and lived experience ▪In-depth findings, thick description ▪No statistics ▪Prompt, probe, examine and clarify ▪Relatively small number of participants ▪Limited target sample ▪Complicated and time-consuming analysis ▪Takes more skills to undertake Qualitative methods Qualitative techniques are not appropriate when the aim of the research is to make general statements about large populations, especially if such statements call for quantification. Triangulation The triangulation method involves the use of more than one research approach in a single study to gain a broader or more complete understanding of the issues being investigated. The methods used are often complementary in that the weaknesses of one approach are complemented by the strengths of another. Triangulation often utilises both qualitative and quantitative approaches in the same study.  Triangulation entails using more than one method or source of data in the study of social phenomena Triangulation There are four different ways that triangulation can be used in research: analysing data in more than one way; using more than one sampling strategy; using different interviewers, observers and analysts in the one study; and using more than one methodology to gather data. If triangulation methods are to be used in a study, the approaches taken will depend on the imagination and the experience of the researcher. Often triangulation is claimed in a study because more than one data source and/or analytical method has been used to address different aspects of the research question, or even different research questions. However, it is when the different data/methods address the same question that true triangulation can be said to have occurred.  Choosing Methods 1. The ‘research question’ can take a variety of forms, but generally it will point the researcher in the direction of certain data sources – for example, in relation to employees, customers or organisations. Certain types of data also suggest certain types of analysis. 2. If the proposed research is closely keyed into the literature and previous research, then the methods used in that research are likely to influence the choice of methods. The aim may be to replicate the methodology used in previous studies to achieve comparability, to improve on the methods used, or to deliberately adopt a contrasting methodology. 3. In some cases, an obvious existing data source presents itself and may even have prompted the research in the first place. In other cases, lack of access shapes, the research – for example, ethical or practical issues may preclude some research on children, so data may have to be gathered from parents 4. The resources of staff and money will have a major effect on the type and scale of the research to be conducted 5. Time and timing is always a limitation. research using the current year’s attendance data must be completed quickly if it is to be used to influence next year’s strategic planning; and empirical research on events, such as sporting events or arts festivals, is constrained by their timing 6. Validity is the extent to which the data collected truly reflect the phenomenon being studied; and reliability is the extent to which research findings would be the same if the research were to be repeated later, or with a different sample of subjects - These concepts are sometimes replaced in qualitative research by the concept of trustworthiness. 7. Ethical issues also limit choices of research method – e.g., inclusion of children 8. The uses and users of the research are often taken for granted, but they are an important factor in shaping research. If substantial investment will depend on the results of the research, then a more extensive and thorough-going project will be required than if the research is to used only to generate ideas. Interview  Interview The research interview is a purposeful conversation between two or more people. Interviewer – interviewee Concise and unambiguous questions Attentive listening Some level of rapport between the interviewer and interviewee One-to-one / group Individual face-to-face/distance Types of research interviews  Structured interviews Researcher-completed questionnaires Standardised questions Good for descriptive or explanatory research Questions asked exactly as written and in the same tone of voice Standardised schedule – pre-coded answers Quantifiable data – quantitative research interviews  Semi-structured interviews Non-standardised / qualitative research interviews Predetermined themes / key questions Order may change between interviews Possible prompts, further discussion, some comments to close the interview Taking notes, audio recording  Unstructured interviews It also calls in-depth interviews Not use predetermined and written down themes and/or questions Free flowing The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about the topic being explored Easy?  Interviews Nature: Length – 30 minutes to several hours Depth – more in-depth than a typical questionnaire-based interview Structure – fluid, informal structure Purposes/situations: Number of subjects small Information complex/variable Exploratory/preliminary Checklist of topics rather than formal list of questions Example of Checklist: Interviews  interviewing process Standardised approach: Informal/unstructured approach Question format same for all subjects Free-form, conversational Minimal unscripted interaction Substantial interaction Researchers adopt a minimalist approach to intervention in the interview and subsequently analyse and interpret the transcript/output in the same way that any text would be analysed Examples of Probes  Ø Participant may appear willing only to give monosyllabic answers – little more than ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Ø Participant may provide long answers which deviate Challenging from the focus of the interview interview Ø Participant may start interviewing you participants Ø Participant may show off their knowledge, criticising what you do Ø Participant may become upset and/or distress during the interview  It can be daunting… Unexpected interviewee behaviour or environmental problem Intrusion of own biases and Interviewing for expectations the first time! Maintaining focusing in asking questions – probing answers, follow- up questions, clarify questions Dealing with sensitive issues Transcription – difficult and time- consuming. Difficult interview participants Participant may appear willing only to give monosyllabic answers – little more than ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Participant may provide long answers which digress from the focus of the interview Participant may start interviewing you Participant may show off their knowledge, criticising what you do Participant may become upset and/or distress during the interview Focus groups interviews Interview conducts with a group of participants (4-12 participants) Mix of interviewing and observation Non-probability sampling Interaction between participants Criteria-based selection of participants; age-gender-role in the organisation-brand/product usage, etc. Need to ensure all group members have their say Facilitator (rather than interviewer) guides discussion Focus groups interviews Purposes/situations: researching a small group which would not be adequately represented in a general community survey used when the interaction/discussion process itself is of interest – e.g. testing reactions to a new product individual in-depth interviews may not be practical to arrange for individuals, but people are willing to be interviewed as a group  Observation Observation is a qualitative research technique where researchers observe participants’ ongoing behaviour in a natural situation/settings. Researcher collect data on what participants do and/or behave as opposed to what they say they do.  Observation Researcher observes and records the behavioural patterns of people in certain settings.  Observation Observation involves; The systematic viewing Recording Description Analysis and interpretation Types of observation  Participant observation The researcher is involved with the participants and the phenomena being researched. People in the society (participants of the research) are aware that they are being researched.  Participant observation - Observer role – overt or covert - Observation setting naturalistic settings, where social relations occur in the natural setting virtual setting -Data collection direct participation and observation observation - Data recording – written notes, visual and/or audio recording  Structured observation A systematic observing of people’s behaviour It is particularly useful at revealing the mundane, routine activities in everyday of life OR when behaviour is difficult to observe in natural settings Observing staff behaviours at Fast food chain  Structured observation - Observer role – passive or detached - Observation setting naturalistic setting artificially created setting laboratory virtual setting -Data collection – coding schedule  The use of internet and social media as the study field – online ethnography -past and/or current social interactions on Internet- social networks mediated observation/ Netnography -discussion sites and internet forums Type of data: text, video, audio, photographs, images, drawings  Internet-mediated observation/ Netnography Observer role ▪ guest ▪ member of an online community – silent or lurking ▪ active or non-active participation Observation setting ▪ virtual setting Data collection – text, video, audio, photo, etc Experimental and Naturalistic methods The experiment is the classic scientific research method like this:  The aim of the experimental method is to control the environment of the subject of the research and measure the effects of controlled change. Experimental and Naturalistic methods Some situations do exist where experiment with human beings in the field of tourism, hospitality and leisure can take place. However, Not in a laboratory, in their natural environment  - Management situations; varying prices or advertising strategies regarding tourism, hospitality and leisure - Game-playing or decision-making tasks; under Examples of different conditions experimental method - Variations in design or location of architecture, equipment, etc. - Physical and/or psychological reactions of human beings can be measured.  Reliability and Validity for qualitative research External reliability, by which they mean the Internal reliability, by which they mean whether or not, when degree to which a study can be replicated. This is a there is more than one observer, members of the research team difficult criterion to meet in qualitative research, agree about what they see and hear since it is impossible to ‘freeze’ a social setting and the circumstances of an initial study to make it Internal validity, by which they mean whether or not there is a replicable in the sense in which the term is usually good match between researchers’ observations and the theoretical employed. ideas they develop. Internal validity tends to be a strength of qualitative research, particularly ethnographic research, because However, several strategies that can be introduced the prolonged participation in the social life of a group over a long to approach the requirements of external period of time allows the researcher to ensure a high level of reliability. For example, a qualitative researcher congruence between concepts and observations replicating ethnographic research needs to adopt a similar social role to that adopted by the original External validity, which refers to the degree to which findings can be researcher. Otherwise, what a researcher generalized across social settings. Unlike internal validity, external conducting a replication sees and hears will not be validity represents a problem for qualitative researchers because of comparable to the original research. their tendency to employ case studies and small samples.  Trustworthiness in qualitative research Some writers have suggested that qualitative studies should be judged or evaluated according to quite different criteria from those used by quantitative researchers. Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Guba and Lincoln (1994) propose that it is necessary to specify terms and ways of establishing and assessing the quality of qualitative research that provide an alternative to reliability and validity. They propose two primary criteria for assessing a qualitative study: trustworthiness and authenticity. Trustworthiness is made up of four criteria, each The criteria of authenticity raise a wider set of issues concerning the of which has an equivalent criterion in quantitative wider impact of research. research: Fairness. Does the research fairly represent different viewpoints among members of the social setting? credibility, which parallels internal validity; Ontological authenticity. Does the research help members to arrive at a better understanding of their social milieu? Educative transferability, which parallels external validity; authenticity. Does the research help members to appreciate better the perspectives of other members of their social setting? dependability, which parallels reliability; Catalytic authenticity. Has the research acted as an impetus to members to engage in action to change their circumstances? confirmability, which parallels objectivity. Tactical authenticity. Has the research empowered members to take the steps necessary for engaging in action? Qualitative vs Quantitative Summary… Diversity of Qualitative Data Qualitative data are derived from: spoken words (verbal data) written, typed or printed words (textual data) visual images (visual data) Qualitative data analysis Qualitative data analysis consists of exploring, managing and interpreting the data collected over time, starting with the raw data and transforming them during a reflective process (Jones et al. 2013, p.151)  Manual analysis There are various ways of analysing interview transcripts or notes. Importance of reading/re-reading transcripts Identification of emergent themes (similar to variables in quantitative research) Themes may: - arise from conceptual framework/ research questions – therefore searched for deductively, or - emerge unprompted, inductively. Themes ‘flagged’ by researcher – as in column 1 Can result in a more developed conceptual framework  Transcribing qualitative data Transcribing includes listening to recorded audio and/or video and typing what you hear word by word. The interviewer / researcher is not only interested in what participants said, but in the way they said it as well.  Transcribing qualitative data Reproducing the collected and recorded data as a written - a verbatim account. Transcription must be thorough and systematic Transcribing very soon after data collection – to remember detail What participants said and in the way that they said it as well – non-verbal communications Extremely time-consuming process Confidentiality and anonymity essential – pseudonym and/or numbers can be used. Transcriptions should be saved in a secure place  Analysis In qualitative data analysis, it is possible to use techniques and presentation methods that are similar to those used in quantitative analysis High #7 #5 #2 #3 Numbers not important Level of Medium #4 income Emphasis on differences rather #12 #6 #1 than similarities #10 #9 #11 Low #8 Some analysis parallel to Little Highly quantitative analysis – e.g. constraint constraining Time as a constraint on activity choice Crosstabulation – see Figure → # Numbers refer to individual interviewees  Qualitative Data Analysis Qualitative research is often associated with an interpretive philosophy because researchers need to make sense of the subjective and socially constructed meanings expressed by those who take part in research about the phenomenon being studied. Social constructionism indicates that meanings are dependent on human cognition – people’s interpretation of the events that occur around them. Since meanings in qualitative research depend on social interpretation, qualitative data are likely to be more ambiguous, elastic and complex than quantitative data. Analysis and understanding of these data therefore needs to be sensitive to these characteristics to be meaningful. Source: Saunders et al., 2012  Thematic Analysis Thematic Analysis is often thought as a general approach to analysis qualitative data 1. comprehend often large and disparate amounts of qualitative data; 2. integrate related data drawn from different transcripts and notes; 3. Identify key themes or patterns from a data set for further exploration; 4. produce a thematic description of these data; and/or 5. develop and test explanations and theories based on apparent thematic patterns or relationships; 6. draw and verify conclusions. Source: Saunders et al., 2019  Thematic Analysis Thematic Analysis is flexible as it is not tied to a particular research philosophy. This process consists of five main phases: organising and storing data transcribing interviews listening, reading, and re-reading the transcriptions developing codes and categorising identifying themes and offering interpretations (Marshall and Rossman 2006; Miles et al. 2014; Saunders et al. 2019) Source: Saunders et al., 2012 Thematic Analysis Source: Saunders et al., 2012 Questions?  References Bell, E., Bryman, A. and Harley, B., 2019. Business Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brunt, P., Horner, S. and Semley, N., 2017. Research Methods in Tourism, Hospitality & Events Management. London: Sage. Collis, J. and Hussey, R., 2014. Business Research: a practical guide for undergraduate & postgraduate students. UK: Palgrave Macmillan Mason, P., 2014. Researching tourism, leisure and hospitality for your dissertation. Goodfellow Publishers Ltd. Miles, M. B., and Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Pervez. G. and Gronhaug, K., 2005. Research Methods in Business Studies. Pearson. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A., 2019. Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson. Scheyvens, R., 2014. Development fieldwork: A practical guide. Development Fieldwork, pp.1-312. Tomczyk, A. T., 2023. Personalisation through pricing co-creation: Customer’s willingness to pay and pricing strategies in the B2C context of hospitality. Veal, A.J., 2018. ed6. Research methods for leisure and tourism. Pearson UK.