Research Methodologies and Ethics PDF

Research Methodologies and Ethics Introduction  Research Meaning  Research Objectives  Motivations of Research  Types of Research  Significance of Research  Methods vs. Methodology The purposes of this course are to discuss:  The various types of research designs...

Research Methodologies and Ethics Introduction  Research Meaning  Research Objectives  Motivations of Research  Types of Research  Significance of Research  Methods vs. Methodology The purposes of this course are to discuss:  The various types of research designs that are commonly used,  The basic process by which research studies are conducted,  The research-related considerations of which researchers should be aware,  The manner in which the results of research can be interpreted and disseminated,  The typical pitfalls faced by researchers when designing and conducting a research study.  Meaning of Research Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.  Objectives of Research  To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures  To find out the truth which has not been discovered yet  Motivations of Researchers  Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits  Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates researc.  Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.  Desire to serve the society.  Desire to get respectability. Types of Research Correlational vs. Experimental Descriptive vs. analytical Applied vs. fundamental Quantitative vs. Qualitative Conceptual vs. Empirical  Correlational vs. Experimental Correlational research: Its goal is to determine whether two or more variables are related. (A variable is anything that can take on different values, such as weight, time, and height) Example: a researcher may be interested in determining whether age is related to weight. Note: If a correlation between two variables is strong enough, knowing about one variable allows a researcher to make a prediction about the other variable.  Types of Correlation  Positive correlation: Both variables change in the same direction (either increase or decrease). For example: if GPAs increase as SAT scores increase, there is a positive correlation between SAT scores and GPAs.  Negative (inverse) correlation: One variable increases, the other variable decreases. In other words, the variables change in opposite directions. For Example: if GPAs decrease as SAT scores increase, there is a negative correlation between SAT scores and GPAs.  Experimental research: involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation. For example: if a researcher is interested in the effects of a new medication on headaches. The researcher would randomly divide people with headache into two groups. One of the groups; the experimental group, would receive the new medication being tested. The other group, the control group, would receive a placebo medication (i.e., a medication containing a harmless substance). Besides receiving different medications, the groups would be treated exactly the same so that the research could isolate the effects of the medications. If people in the experimental group had fewer headaches than people in the control group, the researcher could conclude that the new medication reduces headaches.  Descriptive research: includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. Note: The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.  Analytical research: the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Descriptive vs. Analytical  Applied research: aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. For Example: Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem.  Fundamental research: is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. For Example: Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research. Applied vs Fundamental  Quantitative research: involves studies that make use of statistical analyses to obtain their findings. Key features include formal and systematic measurement and the use of statistics.  Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary or analysis. Qualitative studies typically involve interviews and observations without formal measurement. A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one person, is a form of qualitative research. Note: Qualitative research is often used as a source of hypotheses for later testing in quantitative research. Quantitative vs. Qualitative  Conceptual research: is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.  Empirical research: is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge. Note: The empirical approach, with its emphasis on direct, systematic, and careful observation is best thought of as the guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method. Conceptual vs. Empirical  Significance of Research  It inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization  It provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system  It has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry  It is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problem   For master and Ph.D students, research may mean a way to attain a high position in the social structure  For philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and Insights  for analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories Significance of  Research Methods versus Methodology  Research methods: may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. It refers to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations  Research methodology: is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. It refers to the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. Scientific Method of Research Although some disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific method, most agree that it is characterized by the following:  Empirical approach  Observations  Questions  Hypotheses  Experiments  Analyses  Conclusions  Replication  Empirical Approach  The empirical approach is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge Note: the scientific decisions are made based on the data derived from direct observation and experimentation.  Observation Observations of the world around us often give rise to the questions that are addressed through scientific research. In this sense, observation refers to two distinct concepts—being aware of the world around us and making careful measurements. For example, the Newton observation that apples fall from trees stimulated much research into the effects of gravity Note: Observation also may refers to the process of making careful and accurate measurements, which is a distinguishing feature of well-conducted scientific investigations.  Questions After getting a research idea, the next step in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable Questions The term “answerable” is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be overlooked. It would obviously be a frustrating and ultimately unrewarding endeavor to attempt to answer an unanswerable research question through scientific investigation.  Hypothesis Hypothesis: is simply an educated and testable guess about the answer to your research question. A hypothesis is often described as an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest. Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of study being conducted. Note: Two types of hypotheses with which you should be familiar are the null hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental) hypothesis. The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a difference between the groups  A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a prediction. Remember that hypotheses are the researcher’s attempt to explain the phenomenon being studied, and that explanation should involve a prediction about the variables being studied. These predictions are then tested by gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can either be supported or refuted on the basis of the data. For example: a researcher may hypothesize that “if people exercise for 30 minutes per day (at least three days per week), then their cholesterol levels will be reduced. This hypothesis makes a prediction about the effects of exercising on levels of cholesterol, and the prediction can be tested by gathering and analyzing data. Hypotheses  Experiments  After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involves actually conducting the experiment or research study) For example: if the study involves investigating the effects of exercise on levels of cholesterol, the researcher would design and conduct a study that would attempt to address that question. Note: a key aspect of conducting a research study is measuring the phenomenon of interest in an accurate and reliable manner. In this example, the researcher would collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by using an accurate and reliable measurement device. Then, the researcher would compare the cholesterol levels of the two groups to see if exercise had any effects.  Accuracy vs. Reliability in Experiments  When talking about measurement in the context of research, there is an important distinction between being accurate and being reliable Accuracy: refers to whether the measurement is correct Reliability : refers to whether the measurement is consistent An example: When throwing darts at a dart board, “accuracy” refers to whether the darts are hitting the bull’s eye (an accurate dart thrower will throw darts that hit the bull’s eye). Reliability on the other hand, refers to whether the darts are hitting the same spot (a reliable dart thrower will throw darts that hit the same spot). Therefore, an accurate and reliable dart thrower will consistently throw the darts in the bull’s eye. As may be evident, however, it is possible for the dart thrower to be reliable, but not accurate. For example: the dart thrower may throw all of the darts in the same spot (which demonstrates high reliability), but that spot may not be the bull’s eye (which demonstrates low accuracy). Note: In the context of measurement, both accuracy and reliability are equally important Accuracy vs. Reliability  Analyses After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques.  The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked.  A key decision that researchers must make with the assistance of statistics is whether the null hypothesis should be rejected. Conclusions  After analyzing the data and determining whether to reject the null hypothesis, the researcher is now in a position to draw some conclusions about the results of the study Note: It is important that researchers make only those conclusions that can be supported by the data analyses For example: if a researcher conducted a correlational study and the results indicated that the two things being studied were strongly related, the researcher could not conclude that one thing caused the other.  Replication  Replication: means conducting the same research study once again with another group of participants to see whether the same results are obtained. It is one of the most important elements of the scientific method Note: researchers should avoid drawing broad conclusions based on the results of a single research study because it is always possible that the results of that particular study were an aberration.  Replication serves several integral purposes, including establishing the reliability of the research study’s findings and determining whether the same results can be obtained with a different group of participants (generalizable) Thank you