Islamic World During The Medieval Ages PDF

Islamic World during the Medieval Ages:\ Many scholars agree that the ninth and tenth centuries\ were considered as the golden age of Islamic\ civilization. Muslim scholars made big contributions to\ all branches of human knowledge thus creating\ unprecedented intellectual boom. It should be noted t...

Islamic World during the Medieval Ages:\ Many scholars agree that the ninth and tenth centuries\ were considered as the golden age of Islamic\ civilization. Muslim scholars made big contributions to\ all branches of human knowledge thus creating\ unprecedented intellectual boom. It should be noted that\ Abbasid caliphs highly regarded scholars and\ generously rewarded them. That\'s how they fostered\ individual creativity and provided scholars with a\ favorable medium to work within and conduct their\ researches. No wonder, their capital Baghdad turned to\ be unrivalled flourishing learning center. For example,\ the \"House of Wisdom\" which Al Mamun built there\ was a big research center that comprised rich libraries.\ There, the works of other civilizations; Greek, Persian\ and Indian were translated into Arabic. After amassing\ such former knowledge, Muslim scholars challenged it.\ They tried to verify the theories which those ancient\ works contained. This ended up that they developed the\ scientific approach. They didn\'t suffice themselves with\ the knowledge of the predecessors which they came to\ prove but thoroughly explained, analyzed and added\ commentaries to them. Thus they made big leaps\ forward in many fields. For instance, eminent Muslim\ scholars discovered basic chemical processes like\ distillation, crystallization and others. The medical texts\ of Muslim physicians like those of Avicenna and Al\ Razi had much inspired their European counterparts for\ centuries to come. It seems safe to say that Muslim\ physicians revolutionized medical thought and were\ primarily concerned with improving public health. They\ also developed hospitals and provided patients there\ with medical services of remarkably high quality.\ Significantly, mental illness was treated inside such\ institutions likewise. Music was heavily used in this\ regard to release tension and bring serenity and\ tranquility to those patients.\ In the same context, the theories of Al Hassan Ibn Al\ Haytham formed the basis for the study of light. They\ much influenced later European scholars who\ considered Al Hassan as the \"Father of Optics\". It is not\ surprising that the Arabic language had gradually\ emerged as the language of learning at that time.\ To their credit, Muslim scholars also made a remarkable\ progress in astronomy that was closely associated with\ the performance of the religious rituals of Islam. There\ was a dire need to determine the direction of the \"Qibla\"\ and prayers times in order to fully observe their\ religious commitments. Therefore, they developed\ astrolabes which were elaborate inclinometers used to\ determine local time, latitude on land as well as to locate\ and predict positions of the sun, moon, planets and stars.\ For the same purpose, they developed sundials to find\ times of prayers and used to place them inside mosques.\ Introducing paper to the Muslim world was another\ turning point in history of mankind. Being cheap, paper\ had much helped in preserving human knowledge as\ well as disseminating it far and wide. Indeed the Arabs\ had borrowed it from central Asia, yet they were the\ ones who mastered its manufacture and produced it in\ large quantities to meet the needs of learning. It is not\ surprising that that it became one of the most lucrative\ businesses of the day. From the Muslim world, this\ invention had its way to Europe through Andalusia. This\ was another big favor which the Muslim world had\ rendered to Europe during these ages. The treaties of\ Muslim philosophers like that of Al-Farabi had largely\ influenced European thinkers and left a lasting impact\ on them.\ One can safely say that the scientific achievements and\ innovations of eminent Muslim scholars played a key\ role in the emergence of modern Western civilization.\ To be more precise, they formed the foundation on\ which the modern Western civilization would be later\ erected in the age of Renaissance. Nevertheless, this\ golden age of Islamic civilization was to come to an end\ with the advent of the Mongols. They overthrew the\ Abbasside caliphate and entered the city of Baghdad in\ 1258. They committed a lot of atrocities there including\ the destruction of public libraries with its huge\ collections of books that were thrown into the Tigris.\ This was by all means a big loss not only for Islamic\ civilization but for entire humanity. The fall of\ Andalusia two centuries later added fuel. That\'s how\ Europeans came to inherit the scientific and\ technological initiative of the Muslim world paving the\ way for the rise of scientific revolution.\ Europe during Medieval Ages:\ On the other hand, Europe lived concomitantly in the socalled \"Dark Ages\". It plunged into chaos, ignorance,\ poverty and wretchedness. Plague or the Black Death\ struck Europe with unceasing continuity and wiped out\ entire cities. It killed more than twenty five percent of\ the European population at that time. It was transmitted\ through rodents that reproduced in large number due to\ the deteriorating living and sanitary conditions.\ The feudal system that appeared in Europe at that time\ was a balance of rights and duties. Those who held the\ land were committed to perform military service to lords\ who formed the ruling aristocracy. The relationship\ between those who held the land and the serfs who\ worked on it was defined in the same manner. Such a\ system had created a huge gap between social classes in\ Europe during those ages.\ Furthermore, instability and political disorder disturbed\ public order and added to people\'s woes.\ England and France, for example were engaged in a\ bitter conflict known as the \"Hundred Years\' War\".\ Certainly, warfare embittered people\'s life in both\ countries. The situation in Italy was no better. Territorial\ rivalry among principalities disturbed Germany\'s\ internal peace likewise. In short, the European continent\ lived at hot tinned surface during such ages.\ Transition to Modern Ages\ century Most historians agree that the coming of the 15th\ marked the beginning of modern ages due to the major\ transformation which it had witnessed. Among these\ major transformations were:\ -The fall of Constantinople (1453)\ -The end of Arab rule in Spain (1492)\ -The discovery of the New World (1492)\ - The discovery of Cape of Good Hope (1488 then 1497)\ The fall of Constantinople:\ Constantinople was a millennium-old city that had\ always posed a grave threat to Muslim World. Muslim\ rulers since the time of Muawwiya of the Ummaid\ dynasty tried to enter this city but failed because of its\ massive walls. They always had the dream of entering it\ in accordance with the prophesy of Prophet Muhammad\ prayers be upon him.\ The Ottoman Sultan Muhammad II was fully obsessed\ with this idea of capturing Constantinople since his early\ childhood. Therefore, he worked hard to realize this end.\ He built a massive fortress on the European side of the\ Bosphorus to be a strait-blocker in order to tighten his\ grip over the city. It was called \"Rumali Hisar\" and it\ took him three months only to finish its construction. It\ was the first strategic move towards capturing the city.\ He also tried to control the gulf of the Golden Horn.\ To avoid the massive iron chain at the entrance of the\ Golden Horn that impeded navigation, Muhammad II\ conceived unprecedented genius plan.\ He rolled his ships after folding its mists on a road built\ of wooden logs over the mountains surrounding the gulf.\ The logs were coated with grease to facilitate the sliding\ of the ships. Actually, they were dragged by robust men\ together with oxen overnight. By this way, he\ transferred 70 ships to the gulf of the Golden Horn\ against Byzantine will. It was such unpleasant surprise\ for the people of Constantinople who waked up the\ following day to find the Ottoman ships inside the gulf.\ He laid a siege to the city that lasted for 54 days. At last,\ he captured the city. He triumphantly entered it on 29th\ of May 1453. He changed its name to\" Islam Bul\" which\ means the abode of Islam. As time lapsed, it was slightly\ altered to become \"Istanbul\". He made it a new capital\ for the Ottoman Empire. It remained the capital of the\ Ottoman Empire till its downfall in the Twentieth\ century.\ To his credit, Muhammad II who now acquired the title\ of \"the conqueror\" allowed freedom of worship inside\ the city in accordance with the teachings of Islam that\ openly state that there is no compulsion in faith. He also allowed non-Muslims to practice freely their religious\ rituals.\ \ \ The end of Arab rule in Spain\ The Arabs entered Spain in 711 AD in the reign of the\ Al Waleed Ibn Abd Al Malek of the Ummayid dynasty.\ The army was led by Tareq Ibn Zeyad under the\ command of Musa Ibn Nosseir. The Arab rule would\ last there for eight centuries.\ The city of Cordoba became the capital of an\ independent Arab Muslim Emirate and later Caliphate in\ Andalusia since 766 AD. Córdoba was one of the most\ advanced cities in the world at that time. It was\ incomparable intellectual center that\'s why it became the\ destination of European scholars. At the same time, it\ was also a world leading center of medicine and\ philosophical debate. Its substantial wealth was reflected in its splendor and its lavish buildings. At the height of\ the Muslim caliphate there, it had a population of 500,\ 000 inhabitants. It had lofty palaces, mosques, public\ baths, and gardens containing diversity of flowers,\ plants and fountains. Furthermore, it had the largest\ library in the world during the 10th and 11th centuries\ that comprised more than 400,000 volumes. At the same\ time, it was also a world leading center of medicine and\ philosophical debate. No wonder, all visitors of the city\ were much impressed of its dazzling beauty. A Saxon\ nun named Hroswitha who visited the city during the\ 10th century called it the ornament of the world.\ Non-Muslims who lived there were given the status of\ ahl al-dhimma (the people under protection). They were\ allowed to practice their religious rituals and to live in\ accordance with the laws of their community. In other words, tolerance was a distinctive feature of the\ Andalusian society.\ Unfortunately, the civil war that ensued from 1009 and\ 1013 had a detrimental effect on the Cordoba Caliphate.\ It dramatically collapsed in 1031leading to the\ fragmentation of Muslim state there. At this point,\ Andalusia was divided into a number of petty,\ independent and rather weak states known as \"Tawaef\".\ Unable to defend themselves or to check the recurrent\ raids of the Christian states located to the north that\ gravely escalated every day, Kings of those Tawaef\ sought the help of AlMoravids dynasty in Morocco. In\ response, Yusuf Ibn Tashfin crossed the straits and led\ his army to a big victory in the battle of Al Zallaqa in\ 1086 and tried to re-unite Muslim states there. The Al\ Mohads dynasty succeeded the Al Moravids in the 12th\ century. However, they lost much of their power because of the coalition formed by Christian states\ against them. Things were to worsen with the reestablishment of Tawaef causing disintegration of\ Muslim power in Andalusia and the fall of their big\ cities one after another.\ The Emirate of Granada was the last Muslim stronghold\ in Spain. However, the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon\ and Isabella of Castile and the unification of their\ kingdoms signaled its rapid downfall. They attacked\ Granada which they besieged for long. In January 1492,\ Abu Abd Allah Muhammad XII was forced to surrender\ the city with its fortress palace known as Al Hambra.\ While riding his horse and departing from the city, he\ stopped to look at Al Hambra for one last time. He\ wanted to bid it a farewell but he couldn\'t help bursting\ into tears. When his mother saw his tears, she approached him and said her famous words: \"Thou dost\ weep like a woman for what thou could not defend as a\ man.\"\ Muslim inhabitants of Spain were subject to religious\ persecution. They were obliged to abandon their Arabic\ names, language and even their faith by the Spanish\ inquisition. Finally, the Moriscos were expelled from\ Spain in the years between 1609 and 1614.\ The Discovery of the New World:\ Christopher Columbus was an ambitious Genoese\ navigator who was seeking both fame and wealth. He\ was bent on discovering a new maritime trade route to\ India and the Far East other than the traditional trade\ route controlled by Muslim rulers. He believed that if he\ crossed the Atlantic Ocean, he would reach India. This\ would enable the Europeans to control the spices lucrative trade and deal a lethal blow to the economy of\ the Muslim world. He tried to find sponsors among\ European rulers who could finance his trip but in vain.\ They all believed that it was a risk and a waste of\ money. At last, he convinced Isabella Queen of Castile\ to finance his trip. It seems that he exploited her\ religious prejudice to realize his aim. He set out for this\ trip in 1492. He had three ships the first ship was called\ Saint Maria and it was the flagship that hoisted the\ Spanish flag. Ironically, he instead of finding another\ route to India, he discovered the New World or the\ Western hemisphere. Accordingly, the Spanish soon\ established colonies in the new land and made use of its\ rich resources.The Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope:\ Like the Spanish, the Portuguese had endeavored to find\ new trade routes to India and the Far East. They\ conducted a number of trips for this purpose. Their\ efforts were culminated with the discovery of the Cape\ of Good Hope. It was first discovered by Dias in 1488\ and he called it Cape of the Storms but King John II\ later changed its name to become Cape of Good Hope as\ some kind of good omen. This route goes around the\ African continent and was relatively longer than the\ traditional trade route. Vasco Di Gamma was the one\ who completed this discovery in 1497-1498 which\ marked a shift in international trade. This discovery\ undermined the wealth of the Mamluks that would lead\ eventually the downfall of their Sultanate. As a matter of\ fact, the Mamluks built up their fortunes from the riches\ of the oriental trade. They dominated the international trade between Southeast Asia and Europe making use of\ Egypt's genius setting as a passage way between the\ East and the West. They also controlled grain\ speculation between the countryside and the big cities as\ well as the exchange of merchandise.\ No wonder, the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope\ and the transition of the international trade route dealt\ them a severe stroke that vigorously shacked their\ position and lost them the tariffs imposed on this transit\ trade which formed the prime source of their income at\ that time. What added fuel to fire that the Mamluks\ failed deal with the new situation as they continued to\ live in the same lavishness which they were used to.\ th 15 closing decades of the the atThe Muslim World\ century:\ century, there were three main\ th By the end of the 15\ powers contending for supremacy in the Muslim world The Mamluks (their sphere of interest was Egypt, Syria\ and Hijaz)\ - The Ottomans (their sphere of interest was Anatolia\ and Asia Minor)\ The Safavids (their sphere of interest was Persia and\ -Iraq)\ The Mamluks\ They were originally white slaves who belonged\ to different races brought from Caucasus, Circassia, and\ the Russian Steppes. They were mainly military slaves\ who were first brought to the Muslim world during the\ reign of the Abbasid caliph Al Mutawakkel. The\ Ayyubid Sultan Al Saleh Najm el Din Ayyub brought\ huge number of them to form his personal bodyguard.\ He heavily relied on them because of their efficiency\ and superb fighting attributes. No wonder, it was his Mamluks who would later defend the entire Muslim\ world and maintain themselves in Egypt as an oligarchy\ forming a class per se.\ In 1249 King Louis IX of France led a crusade\ Egypt. He managed to capture Damietta and then\ proceeded southwards. As the Crusaders were\ advancing in Egypt, Al Salih Najm El Din Ayyub died\ at this critical time. His wife who was originally a salve\ concealed the news of his death and his Bahri mamluks\ fiercely fought the crusaders and routed them at the\ battle of \"Mansura\".\ After the assassination of Turanshah the successor of Al\ Saleh, the road became wide open for the Mamluks to\ install their supremacy. They founded the Mamluk\ Sultanate that lasted from 1250-1517 ADTo their credit, they also stopped the advent of the\ Mongols after defeating them at the famous battle of\ \"Ain Jalut\" in 1260 AD\ The word \"Mamluk\" itself literally means an\ owned one. They were brought from slaves markets to\ Egypt at an early age. Then, they would be converted to\ Islam and given new names. They were raised in special\ barracks where they were subject to strict discipline.\ There, they received an advanced military training that\ lasted for a number of years. On its completion,\ mamluks were emancipated in a big ceremony where\ they would receive their certificate of freedom. After\ gaining their freedom, they would start their career.\ They would join the military corps and rise in ranks.\ Mamluks enjoyed certain an opulent lifestyle and were\ given certain privileges like carrying arms and riding\ horses. It is noteworthy to say that Mamluks though\ originally slaves; they did not suffer inferiority like their\ peers who lived elsewhere in the world at that time.\ Actually, slavery in the whole Muslim world was\ not that vicious as slavery in Europe and the New\ World. As a matter of fact, the doctrines of Islam which\ advocated humane treatment to slaves and urged their\ manumission had been a great help to them.\ The mamluks were organized into households\ under the leadership of its founder known as \"Sayyid\"\ which means master or \"Ustaz\" which means teacher.\ Mamluk households rested primarily on two\ fundamental pillars: patron-client relationship that\ guaranteed the loyalty of the Mamluks to their master\ known as \"Walaa\" as well as the loyalty to their\ comrades in servitude known as \"Khushdashiya\". As a result, they were bound together with impressive\ solidarity that was mainly based on their pride as a\ unique and rather exclusive military elite as well as\ common interests. Accordingly, Mamluks who belonged\ to the same household developed a code of honor to\ which they all strictly abided themselves.\ Nevertheless, the Mamluk institution had always\ suffered from factionalism because of the intensified\ rivalry among its households. One can safely say that\ the law that governed their institution was \"survival of\ the fittest\"\ The Ottomans:\ They were attributed to Osman I the founder of\ their dynasty. They formed a vast Empire that\ comprised more than 30 states in three continents\ (southwestern Asia, southeastern Europe, and North\ Africa). No wonder, it became a multi-cultural state. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was one of the greatest\ Empires ever known in history. Its life-span was pretty\ long as it lasted for six centuries from 1299-1923 AD.\ At the height of its glory during the sixteenth century, it\ turned to be a super world power. It was mainly inspired\ and maintained by Islam and Islamic institutions. To\ their credit, the Ottomans never compelled their subjects\ who belonged to different cultures and ethnic origins to\ adopt a certain religion or language. The rule that\ governed their wide state was: \"Live and let others live\".\ Non --Muslims were organized into \"Millet System\"\ and enjoyed a high degree of self-autonomy.\ The Ottomans were originally Turcomani\ nomadic tribes whose ancestral land was located in\ Central Asia. They were forced to move westwards and\ leave their homeland because of the attacks of the\ Mongols. They entered Anatolia in the 13th century. In the course of their emigration, they passed by two\ fighting armies. Out of gallantry, they decided to fight\ next to the defeated army of the Seljuks. Their\ participation in the battle in favor of the Seljuks, brought\ them a big victory. No wonder, Sultan Alaa Al Din of\ the Seljuki Sultanate of Rum felt indebted to them and\ decided to reward them. He granted them a large plain\ to live in. It was called Sogud and it lied on the borders\ of the aged Byzantine Empire. After the death of the\ Seljuki Sultan, Osman son of Ertughrl founded a small\ principality in this place. It expanded gradually at the\ expense of its Byzantine neighbor. They continued their\ expansion in Europe and captured the city of\ Constantinople. This led to the collapse of the Byzantine\ Empire and the rise of Ottoman power.\ It should be noted that the Ottomans had adopted\ the modern military technology of that age which was artillery and firearms which contributed to the\ aggrandizement of their power. The Janissaries troops\ that were infantry troops formed the backbone of the\ Ottoman military power. Its members were recruited\ through the \"Devshirme system\" which the Ottomans\ had successfully implemented. That\'s how the Ottoman\ Empire had protected the Muslim World from the\ Portuguese threat as well as from colonial powers till the\ end of the 18th century\ The Safavids:\ The Safavids was a ruling dynasty in Iran that\ ruled from 1501 to 1736 AD. Its name was derived from\ the name of Sheikh Safy Al Din who was the founder of\ a Sufi order in the city of Ardabil in Azrabijan. They\ adopted Shiism (the Twelver school) and were known\ for their religious zeal. They tried hard to spread the\ Shiite sect both among the Turks of Azrabijan and Anatolia. They were relatively successful and those who\ came to adopt Shiism were called \"Kizlilbash\". The\ word Kizlilbash meant the red heads referring to the\ distinctive headgear which they used to wear. They\ made Ardabil their base from which they moved to\ establish their control over Greater Iran. Shah Ismail\ was the real founder of this dynasty. He proclaimed\ himself Shah and captured the city of Tabriz which he\ made his capital. Although Anatolia was under Ottoman\ control, Shah Ismail made big efforts to spread the Shii\ Sect there among its inhabitants. This must have\ provoked the wrath of the Ottomans who were ardent\ Sunni Muslims. This led ultimately to outbreak of war\ between them.