Delhi Sultanate History PDF

The invasion of Persian invader Muhammad The Ghori laid the foundation of Islamic rule in India. After putting an end to Rajput rule in the north, Ghori left his Turkish slave-general- Qutubuddin Aibak, in charge of his territories in India. When Ghori died in AD 1206, a tussle for power began among...

The invasion of Persian invader Muhammad The Ghori laid the foundation of Islamic rule in India. After putting an end to Rajput rule in the north, Ghori left his Turkish slave-general- Qutubuddin Aibak, in charge of his territories in India. When Ghori died in AD 1206, a tussle for power began among his generals. Soon, Qutbuddin Aibak managed to establish his control over Delhi and the Indian territories conquered by Ghori. Thus began the rule of the Delhi Sultans. The word \'Sultan\' means \'ruler\'in Arabic. The rule of the Sultans, or the Delhi Sultanate, lasted more than 3 centuries - from AD 1206 to AD 1526. From their capital in Delhi, they managed to establish their control over large parts of the Indian subcontinent. There were five successive dynasties that comprised the Delhi Sultanate, namely the Slave dynasty founded by Aibak, the Khaljis, the Tughluqs, the Sayyids, and the Lodis. We will read some of the important rulers from all five dynasties in this chapter.EARLY TURKISH RULERS - THE SLAVE DYNASTY (AD 1206-AD 1290)Raziyva Sultana (AD 126-AD 1240) qutbuddin Albak had a slave under his command during his reign, called Iltutmish. Raziyya was the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish. Despite having sons before his death Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Raziyya as his successor. He felt she would prove a competent ruler. Chronicler Minh-Sirn also says she was more qualified than her brothers in matters of kingship. However, the nobles were uncomfortable about appointing a woman to the throne of the Sultanate. So they appointed one of Iltutmish\'s sons to the throne. When he proved to be an incompetent ruler, Raziyya was finally made the Sultan of Delhi. She was the first woman to rule Delhi. To prove she was competent to rule over the Sultanate, she even dressed like a man, hunted, rode horses, and Fought bravely against rebels.Although Raziyya proved to be a wise and able ruler, she faced a lot of opposition from her brothers and nobles throughout her rule. The mobiles, especially the chalisa, did not like the idea of a woman ruling over Delhi. They were also offended by the preference she showed for one of her slaves. So they began to plot against her. They managed to imprison her and put one of her brothers on the throne. However, one of the nobles, Altunia, was loyal to her. They eventually married, and together, they tried to recapture her lost throne. Unfortunately, but they were caught and put to deathAfter Raziyya\'s death, the throne of Delhi was occupied by a few weak rulers. Finally, one of her brothers, Nasiruddin, was made the Sultan. He, however, left the responsibilities of the empire in the hands of his minister and father-in-law, Ghiyasuddin Balban. Balban, who belonged to the powerful \'group of forty, administered the Sultanate on Nasiruddin\'s behalf for nearly 20 years. After Nasiruddin\'s death, he declared himself the Sultan.Apart from Raziyya Sultana, there were other women who ruled over other parts of the subcontinent in the medieval period- one was Queen Rudramadevi of Warangal and Queen Didda of Kashmir. While Raziyya Sultana dressed in men\'s clothes, Rudramadevi changed her name in inscriptions and pretended to be a man.Ghiyasuddin Balban (AD 1266-AD 1287)Ghiyasuddin took over the throne of Delhi in ADD 1266. His rule was marked with many internal as well as external challenges. He faced strong opposition from his own group, the chalisa, who had become quite powerful. Some Hindu rulers, especially the Rajputs, had also begun to challenge the authority of the Sultan. Besides, the Mongols had become a major threat to the empire. Ghiyasuddin adopted a stern policy of \"blood and iron\" to consolidate his position. He reorganised the nobility and crushed the powerful chalisa with a heavy hand, punishing them mercilessly. Some were even put to death. He suppressed the rebellions by Hindu rulers and established a network of spies to keep an eye on each province. He also built a large and strong army to protect against any internal rebellions as well as attacks from the Mongols. He even built a number of forts along the north- west boundaries of his empire to guard against any Mongol invasion.Balban\'s idea of kingshipAt the time Balban took over the throne of Delhi, the status of the Sultans had suffered greatly. They were reduced to the status of puppet rulers controlled by the strong chalisa. Balban took many measures to restore the status of the Sultans. He exercised complete control over the administration When in court of the empire and his large army. he kept a stern and grave face at all times. He did not even allow courtiers to smile in his presence. He believed in the divine status of the Sultans and claimed to be the representative of God on Earth. He even tried to emphasis this by introducing the practice of sijdah and paibos at his court. All nobles and visitors had to prostrate before the Sultan (sijdah) and kiss his feet (paibos). Ghiyasuddin died in AD 1287. After his death, the Slave dynasty swiftly declined, paving the way for the Khalji dynasty.4.2 THE KHALJI DYNASTY (AD 1290AD 1320)After Ghiyasuddin\'s death, a tussle for power began between Ghiyasuddin\'s successors and nobles. Finally, in AD 1290, an Afghan noble called Jalaluddin Khalji killed Ghiyasuddin\'s heir and took control of the Delhi Sultanate. He laid the foundation for the Khalji dynasty.Jalaluddin Khalji (AD 1290-AD 1296)Jalaluddin Khalji, also known as Firuz Shah, began his career in the army of the Mamluk Sultans. By the time he took over the throne of Delhi, he was 70 years old. He proved to be a mild and generous ruler. He successfully managed to repel a Mongol invasion during his rule and even gave one of his daughters in marriage to a Mongol leader called Ulugh Khan. His leniency towards the Mongols and other rebels turned many nobles against him. They began to regard him a weak ruler.Jalaluddin ruled for a short time. Barely six years after he took over the throne, he was killed by his ambitious nephew Ali Gurshap, or Alauddin.Alauddin Khalji (AD 1296-AD 1316)Just like the Greek ruler Alexander, Alauddin Khalji wanted to conquer the world. He even assumed the title of Sikandar-i-Sani or the second Alexander. Although his plans for a world conquest did not materialise, he did manage to build an empire almost as large as that of Ashoka\'s. Soon after taking over the throne, Alauddin launched a series of conquests to extend the control of the Sultanate. He conquered Gujarat, Malwa, Ranthambor, and Chittor, and managed to bring almost the whole of Rajasthan under his control. Thus, under Alauddin Khalji, the Sultanate\'s control was extended over a large part of the subcontinent.Alauddin was also the first Sultan to extend his control over south India. His forces led successful raids in the Deccan and the south, defeating the rulers of Devagiri, Warangal, and Dvarasamudra. They also plundered Madurai, Srirangam, and Rameswaram. The campaigns made Alauddin quite rich. He, however, did not annex the territories he conquered. He allowed the defeated kings to continue as rulers once they agreed to acknowledge his authority and pay him tributes.Rebellions, invasions, and reforms. When he took over the throne of Delhi, Alauddin faced two threats- rebellion by nobles and invasion by Mongols. To prevent revolts by nobles, Alauddin banned them from visiting each other, hold parties, or even enter into matrimonial alliances. He took back the land and other grants made to the nobility to further dilute their power. He also set up a network of spies to keep an eye on the nobles and officials. It was also during Alauddin\'s rule that the Mongols led by Genghis Khan attacked Delhi repeatedly. To guard his empire, he constructed new forts and repaired old ones along the routes which Mongols were expected to take to enter his territories. In order to maintain his army, Alauddin undertook several measures:\> Revenue reforms: To ensure a constant supply of food for his soldiers, Alauddin raised the tax on farmers, known as kharaj, to 50% of the produce. This ensured his granaries were always full. There were also taxes on cattle and houses. To meet the expenses of his army he recalled all land grants and forced samantas to pay taxes. He introduced a system of land surveys to fix revenue and appointed officials to collect taxes directly from the people. He appointed some of the samantas and landlords as revenue collectors. He prevented peasants\' exploitation by appointing officials to ensure revenue collectors did not collect taxes other than those imposed by him. He even conducted checks on accounts kept by the officials.Military reforms: Unlike the earlier Sultans who gave soldiers land grants in lieu of salaries, Alauddin paid his soldiers in cash. Officials maintained a detailed record of each soldier. Horses were branded to ensure their owners did not substitute them for inferior ones. The troops were also inspected regularlyEconomic reforms: Alauddin\'s soldiers used the cash they earned to buy supplies from merchants. To ensure the merchants did not charge hefty prices from soldiers, Alauddin put controls on prices of goods in Delhi. He fixed the prices of essential items, such as food, clothes, horses, etc. He also appointed officers who made sure the merchants did not charge higher prices than the approved rates.Many of Alauddin\'s policies were followed by later Sultans and the Mughals. After his death, there was a tussle of power for the throne of Delhi Eventually, the Sultanate passed into the hands of the Tughluqs.Pattern of learning Although illiterate, Alauddin was a patron of art, architecture and literature. He built the city of Siri for his soldiers and also constructed several monuments. Many scholars such as Amir Khusrau and Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya were part of his court. Amir Khusrau was both a poet as well as a musician. He has written in detail about Alauddin in Khazainul Futuh and later about the rule of the Tughluqs.Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji (AD 1316-AD 1320)Qutubuddin was the last and the weakest of all Khalji rulers. He released the prisoners who were captured by his predecessors in wars. He was later murdered by his wazir, Khusraw Khan. His death marked the end of the Khalji Dynasty. THE TUGHLUQ DYNASTY (AD 1320-AD 1414)The Tughluq dynasty was founded by Ghazi Malik, who had served as a governor under Alauddin Khalji. He took over the Sultanate in the 14th century AD after killing the last Khalji ruler, Khusraw Khan. After taking over the throne of Delhi, he assumed the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq.Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (AD 1320- AD 1324)Ghiyasuddin Tughluq proved to be just a ruler. His stern rule helped restore order in the Sultanate. His reforms brought much relief, especially to farmers. Agriculture had suffered a great deal under the policies of Alauddin and his successors. To help the farmers, Ghiyasuddin reduced the farm tax to one- tenth of the produce. He granted farmers respite from tax in times of drought and put an end to land surveys. He also built a number of bridges, gardens, and even built a new city called Tughluqabad near Delhi. Ghiyasuddin had taken over the throne of Delhi during a period of political unrest. At the time, a number of provinces had asserted their independence from the Sultanate. Ghiyasuddin reorganised his army, crushed rebellions, and conducted military campaigns in Warangal, Orissa, and Bengal. He succeeded in making them submit to this authority. Ghiyasuddin was killed while returning from his campaign in Bengal. He was killed when a wooden shelter collapsed on him during a function organised to celebrate the victory. Historians are split over the question whether Ghiyasuddin\'s death was an accident Some historians believe his son, Jauna Khan, was re responsible for his death.Muhammad-bin Tughluq (AD 1324-AD 1351After Ghiyasuddin\'s death, his son Jauna Khan succeeded to the throne and took the title of Muhammad-bin Tughluq. Although a learned man, Muhammad became the centre of musch ridicule because of his impractical policies and administrative measures, which nearly ruined the empire. Historians find it difficult to decide whether he was a genius whose policies were ahead of the times or a mad man. Therefore, he has often been called a \'mixture of opposites and the wisest fool in history\'. Moroccan traveller lon Batuta, who came to India during his rule, has written about Muhammad-bin Tughluq in hin travelogue, Rilla.Let us look at some of Muhammad-bin Tughluq\'s failed policies:1. Shifting of the capitalOne of Muhammad\'s measures that caused much resentment among the people was the shifting of the capital to Devagiri near Maharastra. At the time, the Tughluq Empire included Delhi, Gujarat, Malabar, and Afghanistan. Ziauddin Barani a historian who lived during the Tughlaq period says, Muhammad began to feel Devagiri was more centrally located than Delhi to rule over his vast empire. He also felt Devagiri would be safe from the Mongols, who were a constant threat during his rule. Therefore, he decided to shift his capital to Devagiri. The city of Devagiri was renamed Daulatabad and the people of Delhi were ordered to shift to the new capital, which was also a long distance away from Delhi. In the scorching summer heat, people began their journey to Daulatabad. Many died of exhaustion. But within five months of shifting to the new capital, Muhammad bin Tughluq began to feel he had made a mistake. He found he could not control north India effectively from Daulatabad. He also found it was difficult to protect the north-west borders of his empire from Mongols from the new capital. So he ordered people to shift back to Delhi, That brought even more misery and fuelled a lot of resentment among his people2. Taxes in the Ganga-Yamuna DoabDuring Muhammad-bin Tughluq\'s rule, the Sultanate was attacked by Mongols. He managed to defeat then and began to dream of capturing Khurasan (Central Asia) and Iraq. Confident of success, he raised a large army. But instead of building a garrison town for them, he ordered residents of Dehli-i Kuhna, the oldest of the four cities of Delhi, to move to Daulatabad so that his soldiers could stay in the old city.To maintain his large army, he imposed additional taxes in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna valley. But this was widely resented because the move coincided with famine in the region. The peasants were unable to bear the burden of heavy taxes. When officials forced them to pay taxes, many abandoned their lands and ran away, while others broke out in a revolt. Later, the Sultan did try to correct his mistake by establishing a department for agriculture and providing loans to farmers. But he was too late. Though the scheme of giving loans to farmers failed during Muhammad\'s rule, it was successfully adopted by later rulers, including the Mughals.3. Token currencyIn AD 1329, Muhammad-bin Tughluq introduced \'token currency made of cheap metals such as bronze, instead of tankas made of silver. Perhaps the global shortage of silver at the time prompted this move. In the new system of currency, the value of a token coin was deemed to be equal to that of one silver coin. Muhammad even paid his soldiers in the new \'token currency\'. However, the experiment proved to be a disaster. As the token coins were made of cheap metals and were easy to copy, people began minting them in their homes. As a result, the empire was flooded with counterfeit coins, creating utter chaos. People even began saving their gold and silver coins, They began using counterfeit coins to buy goods and pay taxes. When Tughluq realised his mistake, he ordered the recall of all token coins. He offered to exchange all token coins with silver coins. This caused a huge loss to his treasury and the experiment was withdrawn. 4 Military expeditionsMuhammad\'s success with the Mongols in the initial years of his rule fuelled his desire to add more territories to his empire. He launched two campaigns-one to capture Khurasan (Central Asia) and Iraq, and another to take control of the Qarachil region in the Himalayas. Both of them failed. Tughluq gave up plans of capturing more territories and also disbanded his army. This caused more pain to the ruler as the unemployed soldiers resorted to plundering the Sultanate\'s lands.Like Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad-bin Tughluq\'s control initially extended over a large part of the subcontinent and even included south India. But unlike Alauddin, Muhammad believed in annexing conquered territories. This only created more problems for him as he had to deal with rebellions across the empire after his schemes failed, and the nobles, the ulama (Muslim religious scholars), and his people lost faith in him. In the years after the disastrous scheme of shifting the capital to Daulatabad, south India and parts of Deccan became independent of the sultanate. Two powerful regional Kingdoms - Vijayanagar (south India) and Bahmani (Deccan)-emerged in these areas. Muhammad-bin Tughluq spent the last years of his rule suppressing revolts in different parts of the country. He was succeeded by his cousin, Firuz Shah.Before Muhammad-bin Tughluq, other Asian rulers such as Qublai Khan of China and Kaikhatu Khan of tran also introduced token currencies in their kingdoms. In China, Qublai Khan Introduced a paper currency called Chuso, which was quite successful. This was because he had made alternative arrangements for people who wanted to use gold and silver. The ink and paper used in the currency were made by the government and could not be forged easily. Firuz Shah Tughluq (AD 1351-AD 1388)Firuz Shah Tughluq is known as a great reformer who took many steps to end the suffering caused by Muhammad\'s policies. He tried to revive agriculture by reforming the revenue system and bringing down taxes. To provide irrigation facilities, he constructed many canals, dams, reservoirs, and embankments. These measures were welcomed by farmers who had suffered a lot under Muhammad\'s policies and soon agricultural production increased. Firuz Shah also established a special department called \'Diwan-i-Khairat\' for the poor and the needy. He built many mosques, hospitals, and colleges for his people. He also built several towns. He also established workshops, or karkhanas, to train slaves in different crafts.Firuz Shah also built a new capital at Delhi and called it Firuzabad (now called Firuz Shah Kotla). He also founded the cities of Firuzabad of Hissar, Jaunpur, and Fatehabad. A great patron of learning, he is known to have established several educational institutions. Eminent scholars like Jalaluddin Romi were part of his court. Many Sanskrit works were translated during his rule. However, some of his measures helped hasten the end of the empireA devout Muslim, Firuz Shas imposed a tax on non-Muslims called jaziyaHe also made many efforts to please the nobility and the ulama by giving them generous rewards and land grants. While the influence of the ulama had been curbed during Muhammad-bin Tughluq\'s rule, they became quite powerful under Firuz Shah Nobles, too, enjoyed greater powers under him compared to earlier rulers.To strengthen his position, Firuz Shah also revived the system of giving land grants or iqtas, which often became hereditary. He also re-introduced the system of giving land or jagirs to soldiers in lieu of salary. These measures ultimately weakened his control over the Sultanate. Many muqtis and jagirdars became powerful over time and asserted their independence.The number of slaves in the Sultanate increased during Firuz Shah\'s rule. The maintenance of such a large number of slaves put a considerable strain on the empire\'s finances.Firuz Shah ruled over the Sultanate for 37 years. After him, the Tughluq dynasty fell into a decline The last ruler of the dynasty was defeated by Timur of Central Asia. This struck a death blow to the dynasty which disintegrated soon after.TUGHLUQ ADMINISTRATIONLike the Khaljis, the Tughluqs governed their kingdoms with the help of bandagans and clients. Clients were usually people of humble origins They were often appointed to important positions. These nobles emerged as a powerful group under the Tughluqs. They headed the different departments of the government. Important officials in the administration included the wazir, who headed the revenue department; the bakshi, who served as the paymaster general of the army, the qazi, who served as the chief judge.LAND GRANTSThe Tughluqs also granted iqtas to officials. The Tughlugs were more lenient in granting iqtas to officials. As a result, the number of iqtadars rose during their rule.Under the earlier Sultans, the iqtas were not hereditary and could be reassigned. Under Muhammad-bin Tughluq, there were strict checks on the iqtadars. They could not collect taxes other than those imposed by the Sultan and had to maintain a prescribed number of soldiers. However, under Firuz Shah, the assignments began to be treated as hereditary. Over time, many iqtadars became quite powerful.4.4 THE SAYYID DYNASTY (AD 1414-AD 1451)Khizr Khan (AD 1414-AD 1421)After establishing his control over Delhi, Khizr Khan tried to extend his control over more territories but met with little success. He and his successors - Mubarak Shah Sayyid, Muhammad Shah Sayyid, and Alauddin Alam Shah Sayyid - were involved in a constant struggle to keep their control over their kingdom. It was during Alauddin Alam Shah\'s rule that Bahlul Lodi, the Afghan governor of Sirhind, managed to carve out a large kingdom in Punjab and set his sights on Delhi. In AD 1451, Bahlul Lodi took over the throne of Delhi and founded the Lodi dynasty.This established the rule of Afghans. The earlier Sultans were Turks.4.5 HISTORICAL SOURCESThere are many coins, inscriptions, and monuments which give us valuable information about the Delhi Sultanate Besides them, there are \'histories\' known as tarikh (plural - tawarikh) which give us insights into important events in the lives of the rulers. The tawarikh were written by administrators, poets, courtiers, etc., and also contained advice for rulers. The \'histories\' often urged the Sultans to rule justly and maintain the social order, namely ensuring privileges for nobles and their heirs and superiority of men over women. Besides the tawarikh, there are other literary sources that shed light on the period such as, Amir Khusrau\'s Tughluq Nama, Ziauddin Barani\'s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, and accounts of travellers like Ibn Batuta and Marco Polo. Apart from literary sources, there are several archaeological sources which tell us about the period. Important monuments built during the rule of the Delhi Sultans include the Qutb Minar, the Quwwat al-Islam mosque, the Begumpuri mosque, the Moth ki Masjid, and the tombs of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq and Sikandar Lodi. Besides them, the various forts constructed by the Sultans and the cities of Delhi also shed light on their rule.