Final Exam Study Guide PSYC 260 PDF

Final Exam Study Guide: PSYC 260 Life Span and Development (Chapters 19-24) (Please note: Review your lecture ppt slides and supplement it with readings from the textbook. Focusing on answering these questions will provide the content from which you will primarily be tested on. Be famil...

Final Exam Study Guide: PSYC 260 Life Span and Development (Chapters 19-24) (Please note: Review your lecture ppt slides and supplement it with readings from the textbook. Focusing on answering these questions will provide the content from which you will primarily be tested on. Be familiar with terms/concepts and principles and be able to apply them in life situations/scenarios). Chapter 19 Review Questions: 1. Throughout this module many ‘shifts’ are mentioned—shifts in division of labor, family roles, marital expectations, divorce, and societal and cultural norms, among others, were discussed. What shift do you find most interesting and why? What types of shifts do you think we might see in the future? 2. In the reading we discuss different parenting practices. Much of the literature suggests that authoritative parenting is best. Do you agree? Why or why not? Are there times when you think another parenting style would be better? 3. The section on divorce discusses specific factors that increase or decrease the chances of divorce. Based on your background, are you more or less at risk for divorce? Consider things about your family of orientation, culture, religious practices and beliefs, age, and educational goals. How does this risk make you feel? 4. The module ends with some tips for happy, healthy families. Are there specific things you could be doing in your own life to make for a happier, healthier family? What are some concrete things you could start doing immediately to increase happiness in your family? Vocabulary Adoption To take in and raise a child of other parents legally as one’s own. Age in place The trend toward making accommodations to ensure that aging people can stay in their homes and live independently. Anxious-avoidant Attachment style that involves suppressing one’s own feelings and desires, and a difficulty depending on others. Anxious-resistant Attachment style that is self-critical, insecure, and fearful of rejection. Attachment theory Theory that describes the enduring patterns of relationships from birth to death. Authoritarian parenting Parenting style that is high is demandingness and low in support. Authoritative parenting A parenting style that is high in demandingness and high in support. Blended family A family consisting of an adult couple and their children from previous relationships. Boomerang generation Term used to describe young adults, primarily between the ages of 25 and 34, who return home after previously living on their own. Child abuse Injury, death, or emotional harm to a child caused by a parent or caregiver, either intentionally or unintentionally. Childfree Term used to describe people who purposefully choose not to have children. Childless Term used to describe people who would like to have children but are unable to conceive. Cohabitation Arrangement where two unmarried adults live together. Coherence Within attachment theory, the gaining of insight into and reconciling one’s childhood experiences. Elder abuse Any form of mistreatment that results in harm to an elder person, often caused by his/her adult child. Empty Nest Feelings of sadness and loneliness that parents may feel when their adult children leave the home for the first time. Engagement Formal agreement to get married. Family of orientation The family one is born into. Family of procreation The family one creates, usually through marriage. Family systems theory Theory that says a person cannot be understood on their own, but as a member of a unit. Foster care Care provided by alternative families to children whose families of orientation cannot adequately care for them; often arranged through the government or a social service agency. Heterogamy Partnering with someone who is unlike you in a meaningful way. Homogamy Partnering with someone who is like you in a meaningful way. Intimate partner violence Physical, sexual, or psychological abuse inflicted by a partner. Joint family A family comprised of at least three generations living together. Joint families often include many members of the extended family. Learned helplessness The belief, as someone who is abused, that one has no control over his or her situation. Marriage market The process through which prospective spouses compare assets and liabilities of available partners and choose the best available mate. Modern family A family based on commitment, caring, and close emotional ties. Multigenerational homes Homes with more than one adult generation. Neglect Failure to care for someone properly. Nuclear families A core family unit comprised of only the parents and children. Permissive parenting Parenting that is low in demandingness and high in support. Physical abuse The use of intentional physical force to cause harm. Psychological abuse Aggressive behavior intended to control a partner. Sandwich generation Generation of people responsible for taking care of their own children as well as their aging parents. Second shift Term used to describe the unpaid work a parent, usually a mother, does in the home in terms of housekeeping and childrearing. Secure attachments Attachment style that involves being comfortable with depending on your partner and having your partner depend on you. Sexual abuse The act of forcing a partner to take part in a sex act against his or her will. Single parent family An individual parent raising a child or children. Stepfamily A family formed, after divorce or widowhood, through remarriage. Traditional family Two or more people related by blood, marriage, and—occasionally-- by adoption. Two-parent family A family consisting of two parents—typical both of the biological parents-- and their children. Uninvolved parenting Parenting that is low in demandingness and low in support. Working models An understanding of how relationships operate; viewing oneself as worthy of love and others as trustworthy. Chapter 20 Review Questions: 1. How do age stereotypes and intergenerational social interactions shape quality of life in older adults? What are the implications of the research of Levy and others? 2. Researchers suggest that there is both stability and change in Big Five personality traits after age 30. What is stable? What changes? 3. Describe the Social Convoy Model of Antonucci. What are the implications of this model for older adults? 4. Memory declines during adulthood. Is this statement correct? What does research show? 5. Is dementia inevitable in old age? What factors are currently thought to be protective? 6. What are the components of successful aging described by Rowe and Kahn (1998) and others? What outcomes are used to evaluate successful aging? Vocabulary: Age identity How old or young people feel compared to their chronological age; after early adulthood, most people feel younger than their chronological age. Autobiographical narratives A qualitative research method used to understand characteristics and life themes that an individual considers to uniquely distinguish him- or herself from others. Average life expectancy Mean number of years that 50% of people in a specific birth cohort are expected to survive. This is typically calculated from birth but is also sometimes re-calculated for people who have already reached a particular age (e.g., 65). Cohort Group of people typically born in the same year or historical period, who share common experiences over time; sometimes called a generation (e.g., Baby Boom Generation). Convoy Model of Social Relations Theory that proposes that the frequency, types, and reciprocity of social exchanges change with age. These social exchanges impact the health and well-being of the givers and receivers in the convoy. Cross-sectional studies Research method that provides information about age group differences; age differences are confounded with cohort differences and effects related to history and time of study. Crystallized intelligence Type of intellectual ability that relies on the application of knowledge, experience, and learned information. Fluid intelligence Type of intelligence that relies on the ability to use information processing resources to reason logically and solve novel problems. Global subjective well-being Individuals’ perceptions of and satisfaction with their lives as a whole. Hedonic well-being Component of well-being that refers to emotional experiences, often including measures of positive (e.g., happiness, contentment) and negative affect (e.g., stress, sadness). Heterogeneity Inter-individual and subgroup differences in level and rate of change over time. Inhibitory functioning Ability to focus on a subset of information while suppressing attention to less relevant information. Intra- and inter-individual differences Different patterns of development observed within an individual (intra-) or between individuals (inter-). Life course theories Theory of development that highlights the effects of social expectations of age-related life events and social roles; additionally considers the lifelong cumulative effects of membership in specific cohorts and sociocultural subgroups and exposure to historical events. Life span theories Theory of development that emphasizes the patterning of lifelong within- and between-person differences in the shape, level, and rate of change trajectories. Longitudinal studies Research method that collects information from individuals at multiple time points over time, allowing researchers to track cohort differences in age-related change to determine cumulative effects of different life experiences. Processing speed The time it takes individuals to perform cognitive operations (e.g., process information, react to a signal, switch attention from one task to another, find a specific target object in a complex picture). Psychometric approach Approach to studying intelligence that examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning. Recall Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information without the help of external cues. Recognition Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information with the assistance of cues. Self-perceptions of aging An individual’s perceptions of their own aging process; positive perceptions of aging have been shown to be associated with greater longevity and health. Social network Network of people with whom an individual is closely connected; social networks provide emotional, informational, and material support and offer opportunities for social engagement. Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Theory proposed to explain the reduction of social partners in older adulthood; posits that older adults focus on meeting emotional over information-gathering goals, and adaptively select social partners who meet this need. Subjective age A multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels and into which age group a person categorizes him- or herself Successful aging Includes three components: avoiding disease, maintaining high levels of cognitive and physical functioning, and having an actively engaged lifestyle. Working memory Memory system that allows for information to be simultaneously stored and utilized or Manipulated. Chapter 21 Review Questions 1. Why is it difficult to give a simple answer to the question of whether personality is stable across the lifespan? 2. What happens during young adulthood that might explain findings about average changes in personality attributes? 3. Why does differential stability increase during adulthood? 4. What are some concrete examples of the ASTMA processes? 5. Can you explain the corresponsive principle of personality development? Provide several clear examples. 6. Do you think dramatic personality changes are likely to happen in adulthood? Why or why not? 7. What kinds of environments might be particularly powerful for changing personality? 8. What specific features of these environments seem to make them powerful for producing change? 9. Is it easy to change your personality in adulthood? What steps do you think are needed to produce noticeable and lasting changes in your personality? What steps are needed to change the personalities of others? 10. Do you find the evidence that personality attributes are relatively enduring attributes reflects a largely positive aspect of adult development or a more unpleasant aspect? Why? Vocabulary Absolute stability Consistency in the level or amount of a personality attribute over time. Active person–environment transactions The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that occurs whenever individuals play a key role in seeking out, selecting, or otherwise manipulating aspects of their environment. Age effects Differences in personality between groups of different ages that are related to maturation and development instead of birth cohort differences. Attraction A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs because individuals with particular traits are drawn to certain environments. Attrition A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs because individuals with particular traits drop out from certain environments. Birth cohort Individuals born in a particular year or span of time. Cohort effects Differences in personality that are related to historical and social factors unique to individuals born in a particular year. Corresponsive principle The idea that personality traits often become matched with environmental conditions such that an individual’s social context acts to accentuate and reinforce their personality attributes. Cross-sectional study/design A research design that uses a group of individuals with different ages (and birth cohorts) assessed at a single point in time. Cumulative continuity principle The generalization that personality attributes show increasing stability with age and experience. Differential stability Consistency in the rank-ordering of personality across two or more measurement occasions. Evocative person–environment transactions The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that occurs whenever attributes of the individual draw out particular responses from others in their environment. Group level A focus on summary statistics that apply to aggregates of individuals when studying personality development. An example is considering whether the average score of a group of 50 year olds is higher than the average score of a group of 21 year olds when considering a trait like conscientiousness. Heterotypic stability Consistency in the underlying psychological attribute across development regardless of any changes in how the attribute is expressed at different ages. Homotypic stability Consistency of the exact same thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across development. Hostile attribution bias The tendency of some individuals to interpret ambiguous social cues and interactions as examples of aggressiveness, disrespect, or antagonism. Individual level A focus on individual level statistics that reflect whether individuals show stability or change when studying personality development. An example is evaluating how many individuals increased in conscientiousness versus how many decreased in conscientiousness when considering the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Longitudinal study/design A research design that follows the same group of individuals at multiple time points. Manipulation A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs whenever individuals with particular traits actively shape their environments. Maturity principle The generalization that personality attributes associated with the successful fulfillment of adult roles increase with age and experience. Person–environment transactions The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that ends up shaping both personality and the environment. Reactive person–environment transactions The interplay between individuals and their contextual circumstances that occurs whenever attributes of the individual shape how a person perceives and responds to their environment. Selection A connection between personality attributes and aspects of the environment that occurs whenever individuals with particular attributes choose particular kinds of environments. Stress reaction The tendency to become easily distressed by the normal challenges of life. Transformation The term for personality changes associated with experience and life events. Chapter 22 Review Questions: 1. What are some of the main challenges that face relationships today? 2. How would you describe the concept of an emotional bank account? 3. What are some ways people can make deposits to their relationship bank accounts? 4. What do you think are the most effective ways for making positive relationship deposits? 5. What are some of the most powerful relationship deposits that others have made into your relationship bank account? 6. What would you consider to be some challenging or engaging activities that you would consider doing more of with a close relationship partner? 7. Are there relationships of yours that have gotten into a negative spiral and could profit from positive relationship deposits? Vocabulary Active-constructive responding Demonstrating sincere interest and enthusiasm for the good news of another person. Capitalization Seeking out someone else with whom to share your good news. Relationship bank account An account you hold with every person in which a positive deposit or a negative withdrawal can be made during every interaction you have with the person. Self-expansion model Seeking to increase one’s capacity often through an intimate relationship. Chapter 23 Review Questions: 1. What is more important to happiness: the quality or quantity of your social relationships? 2. What do you think has more influence on happiness: friends or family relationships? Do you think that the effect of friends and family on happiness will change with age? What about relationship duration? 3. Do you think that single people are likely to be unhappy? 4. Do you think that same-sex couples who get married will have the same benefits, in terms of happiness and well-being, compared to heterosexual couples?  5. What elements of subjective well-being do you think social relationships have the largest impact on: life satisfaction, positive affect, or negative affect? 6. Do you think that if you are unhappy you can have good quality relationships? 7. Do you think that social relationships are important for happiness more so for women compared to men? Vocabulary Confidante A trusted person with whom secrets and vulnerabilities can be shared. Correlation A measure of the association between two variables, or how they go together. Health The complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being—not just the absence of disease or infirmity. Health behaviors Behaviors that are associated with better health. Examples include exercising, not smoking, and wearing a seat belt while in a vehicle. Machiavellianism Being cunning, strategic, or exploitative in one’s relationships. Named after Machiavelli, who outlined this way of relating in his book, The Prince. Narcissism A pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), a need for admiration, and lack of empathy. Objective social variables Targets of research interest that are factual and not subject to personal opinions or feelings. Operationalization The process of defining a concept so that it can be measured. In psychology, this often happens by identifying related concepts or behaviors that can be more easily measured. Ostracism Being excluded and ignored by others. Psychopathy A pattern of antisocial behavior characterized by an inability to empathize, egocentricity, and a desire to use relationships as tools for personal gain. Shunning The act of avoiding or ignoring a person, and withholding all social interaction for a period of time. Shunning generally occurs as a punishment and is temporary. Social integration Active engagement and participation in a broad range of social relationships. Social support A social network’s provision of psychological and material resources that benefit an individual. Subjective social variables Targets of research interest that are not necessarily factual but are related to personal opinions or feelings. Subjective well-being The scientific term used to describe how people experience the quality of their lives in terms of life satisfaction and emotional judgments of positive and negative affect. Chapter 24 Review Questions: 1. What psychological factors contribute to health? 2. Which psychosocial constructs and behaviors might help protect us from the damaging effects of stress? 3. What kinds of interventions might help to improve resilience? Who will these interventions help the most? 4. How should doctors use research in health psychology when meeting with patients? 5. Why do clinical health psychologists play a critical role in improving public health? Vocabulary Adherence In health, it is the ability of a patient to maintain a health behavior prescribed by a physician. This might include taking medication as prescribed, exercising more, or eating less high-fat food. Behavioral medicine A field similar to health psychology that integrates psychological factors (e.g., emotion, behavior, cognition, and social factors) in the treatment of disease. This applied field includes clinical areas of study, such as occupational therapy, hypnosis, rehabilitation or medicine, and preventative medicine. Biofeedback The process by which physiological signals, not normally available to human perception, are transformed into easy-to-understand graphs or numbers. Individuals can then use this information to try to change bodily functioning (e.g., lower blood pressure, reduce muscle tension). Biomedical Model of Health A reductionist model that posits that ill health is a result of a deviation from normal function, which is explained by the presence of pathogens, injury, or genetic abnormality. Biopsychosocial Model of Health An approach to studying health and human function that posits the importance of biological, psychological, and social (or environmental) processes. Chronic disease A health condition that persists over time, typically for periods longer than three months (e. g., HIV, asthma, diabetes). Control Feeling like you have the power to change your environment or behavior if you need or want to. Daily hassles Irritations in daily life that are not necessarily traumatic, but that cause difficulties and repeated stress. Emotion-focused coping Coping strategy aimed at reducing the negative emotions associated with a stressful event. General Adaptation Syndrome A three-phase model of stress, which includes a mobilization of physiological resources phase, a coping phase, and an exhaustion phase (i.e., when an organism fails to cope with the stress adequately and depletes its resources). Health According to the World Health Organization, it is a complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health behavior Any behavior that is related to health—either good or bad. Hostility An experience or trait with cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components. It often includes cynical thoughts, feelings of emotion, and aggressive behavior. Mind–body connection The idea that our emotions and thoughts can affect how our body functions. Problem-focused coping A set of coping strategies aimed at improving or changing stressful situations. Psychoneuroimmunology A field of study examining the relationship among psychology, brain function, and immune function. Psychosomatic medicine An interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on how biological, psychological, and social processes contribute to physiological changes in the body and health over time. Resilience The ability to “bounce back” from negative situations (e.g., illness, stress) to normal functioning or to simply not show poor outcomes in the face of adversity. In some cases, resilience may lead to better functioning following the negative experience (e.g., post-traumatic growth). Self-efficacy The belief that one can perform adequately in a specific situation. Social integration The size of your social network, or number of social roles (e.g., son, sister, student, employee, team member). Social support The perception or actuality that we have a social network that can help us in times of need and provide us with a variety of useful resources (e.g., advice, love, money). Stress A pattern of physical and psychological responses in an organism after it perceives a threatening event that disturbs its homeostasis and taxes its abilities to cope with the event. Stressor An event or stimulus that induces feelings of stress. Type A Behavior Type A behavior is characterized by impatience, competitiveness, neuroticism, hostility, and anger. Type B Behavior Type B behavior reflects the absence of Type A characteristics and is represented by less competitive, aggressive, and hostile behavior patterns.