Module 1: Science, Technology, and Society PDF

**MODULE 1** There is a need to study science and technology vis-à-vis society through a critical historical perspective. Science and technology have positive contributions to the development of humankind. Scientific knowledge and technological know-how have facilitated progress in all aspects of h...

**MODULE 1** There is a need to study science and technology vis-à-vis society through a critical historical perspective. Science and technology have positive contributions to the development of humankind. Scientific knowledge and technological know-how have facilitated progress in all aspects of human existence. These have helped human societies solve their many problems. However, even as great benefits have been brought by science and technology, they also inflicted some costs. While advances in telecommunications, transport and information technology, medical sciences and technology, and agricultural and industrial technologies have led to progress, these have also resulted to environmental degradation and the breakdown of social institutions, among others. **Science** refers to the body of knowledge that has been produced through and validated by systematic processes of inquiry. It also refers to that dynamic, cumulative system of verifiable concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories and processes which seek to describe, understand, and predict natural phenomena (Posadas, 1982). In other words, **scientific knowledge** is a product of **discovery.** When we talk of science in its generic meaning, most people usually refer to the natural and physical sciences, which include biology, physics, chemistry and mathematics, and their allied disciplines **Technology** is the translation of scientific knowledge into machines, tools, designs, methods and processes that are used by human beings in their practical endeavors. It is that dynamic cumulative system of reproducible(\* methods, techniques, and processes which may be derived from empirical know-how or scientific knowledge and which are used by human societies for the production, improvement, and distribution of goods and services as well as the satisfaction of other material needs (Posadas, 1982). Thus, i**nvention** leads to **technology**, manifested through new and improved tools, or "hardware," and better means of doing things, or "software." As Posadas (1982) posits, science focuses on "know-why" and technology on "know- how." **Scientific activity** enables the production of knowledge that answers questions about the natural world. This, in turn, is used by other scientists, or as input to the development of technologies. On the other hand, technological activity leads to products and processes that are commercially available to society at large. Thus, even as there are important differences between science and technology, there are also important linkages between them. **Developments in science are used in the development of technology**. On the other hand, the creation of new machines and methods facilitate the discovery of knowledge about the natural world, as seen for example in the invention of advanced laboratory equipment and techniques that enable the research work of scientists. Scientists are also human beings who work in the context of the problems that exist in their societies and communities. Thus, they are i**nfluenced by the manner** by which they perceive such problems as well as the manner by which they respond to such problems. The type of research activity which a scientist does could be classified according to how they engage societal problems and issues. o **Basic research, or fundamental research**---refers to a research activity where the **goal is to discover knowledge for its own sake,** without considering its application to societal problems. o **Applied research**---refers to a research activity where the objective is to **discover knowledge which has direct implications on some specific and socially** **relevant objective.** o Mission-oriented research---refers to an i**ntegrated approach consisting of basic and applied researches** with a focus on the development of strategies that are relevant to a specific set of well-defined social, economic, political, or strategic goals. There are two main approaches to the study of the history of science--- **internalist and externalist.** o **Internalist approach**---Science is **autonomous and independent from the forces of society**, in that it has an internal logic of its own. Scientific knowledge is an outcome of the work of scientists working independently to satisfy their natural curiosity. Scientists, in this view, are **considered as individuals pursuing research** **for its own sake, and not for its social purpose.** o **Externalist approach**---Science and technology d**evelop within a societal context**. As such, they are shaped by and respond to the social, economic, political and ideological forces in society. There are **two views** in this approach. There are **four different framework**s in analyzing and interpreting the relationships between science, technology and society. **o Instrumentalism**---this **considers technology as merely a tool or instrument for humans to achieve certain goals** or to meet certain needs. In this framework, technologies are considered neutral and without inherent morality. Their use is what determines their morality. For example, a gun is just a tool. It has no inherent moral property. If it is used for murder, then it is bad. On the other hand, if it is used to save lives, then it is good. In this framework, the following questions are relevant in analyzing the relationship of technology to society: Can the technology be used? o **Socio-determinism or contextualism**---this argues that technologies are not neutral but are **expressions of particular social, political and cultural systems of** **values that exist in the society** within which the technologies emerge. Thus, technologies can only be understood within such societal context. The key questions that are relevant in this framework are the following: What are the conditions or problems that led to the development of the technology? **o Techno-determinism**---this posits that technology, as social products, eventually become i**ndependent of the forces that influenced its development.** In fact, technology could now be a force that can influence societal development. This could be facilitated by the fact that technology acts as input to the production process. One line of argument in this view is the fear that human beings might lose control of technology, and that technology might even reshape human behavior, by rigidly specifying the parameters for their effective use. The latter can be seen when human beings are "forced" to acquire skills that could enable them to use a given technology. Some examples of these include computer literacy to be able to use computers; or advanced degrees, special training and licensing to be able to use sophisticated laboratory equipment. The key questions relevant in using this framework are the following: n what ways are the technology used? Is it to further Scientific knowledge, to aid human beings in their activities, or to facilitate the development process? Is there any evidence that the technology has reshaped, or may reshape human behavior? **Soft-determinism**---this argues that **not all technologies are centralized mega-systems that could control the behavior of human beings.** While it agrees to the claim that the morality of the technology is shaped by its social context, it also adheres to the belief that that **technology can only condition, and not force,** society to assume a particular order or social arrangement. The key questions when using this framework are the following: