Scientific Writing Notes PDF

**NOTES** **SCIENTIFIC WRITING** I. **Finding a Research Question** A research question is the main question that your study sought or is seeking to answer. A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and states exactly what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and o...

**NOTES** **SCIENTIFIC WRITING** I. **Finding a Research Question** A research question is the main question that your study sought or is seeking to answer. A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and states exactly what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and objective. Learning [how to write a hypothesis](https://blog.wordvice.com/how-to-write-a-hypothesis-tips-examples/) or research question is the start to composing any thesis, dissertation, or research paper. It is also one of the most important [sections of a research proposal](https://blog.wordvice.com/research-proposal-sections-explained/).  A good research question not only clarifies the writing in your study; it provides your readers with a clear focus and facilitates their understanding of your research topic, as well as outlining your study's objectives. Before drafting the paper and receiving [research paper editing](https://wordvice.com/services/paper-editing) (and usually before performing your study), you should write a concise statement of what this study intends to accomplish or reveal. A good research question should: - **Be clear and provide** **specific information** so readers can easily understand the purpose. - **Be focused in its scope** and narrow enough to be addressed in the space allowed by your paper - **Be relevant and concise** and express your main ideas in as few words as possible, like a hypothesis. - **Be precise and complex** enough that it does not simply answer a closed "yes or no" question, but requires an analysis of arguments and literature prior to its being considered acceptable.  - **Be arguable or testable** so that answers to the research question are open to scrutiny and specific questions and counterarguments. A. **The research question should be specific and focused ** Research questions that are too broad are not suitable to be addressed in a single study. One reason for this can be if there are many factors or variables to consider. In addition, a sample data set that is too large or an experimental timeline that is too long may suggest that the research question is not focused enough. A specific research question means that the collective data and observations come together to either confirm or deny the chosen hypothesis in a clear manner. If a research question is too vague, then the data might end up creating an alternate research problem or hypothesis that you have not addressed in your [Introduction section](https://blog.wordvice.com/how-to-draft-a-compelling-introduction-for-your-journal-article/). **Broad research question** What is the importance of diplomacy in international relations? ------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ **Focused research question** How is diplomacy relevant in strengthening relations among central African states? B. **The research question should be realistic in time, scope, and budget** A proper research question will include study or experimental procedures that can be executed within a feasible time frame, typically by a graduate doctoral or master's student. Research that requires future technology, expensive resources, or follow-up procedures is problematic. A researcher's budget is also a major constraint to performing timely research. Research at many large universities or institutions is publicly funded and is thus accountable to funding restrictions.  **Unrealistic research question** How can we develop a comprehensive global database of all conflicts around the world, and analyze their effects on each state? ----------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Realistic research question** What are the effects of the Central African Republic conflict on Cameroon in relation to forcibly displaced persons? C. **The research question should be in-depth** Research papers, [dissertations and theses](https://blog.wordvice.com/dissertation-versus-thesis-key-differences-3/), and academic journal articles are usually dozens if not hundreds of pages in length. A good research question or thesis statement must be sufficiently complex to warrant such a length, as it must stand up to the [scrutiny of peer review](https://medium.com/wordviceediting/peer-review-versus-self-editing-the-best-way-to-edit-your-paper-8d15c8eac4d9) and be reproducible by other scientists and researchers. **Superficial research question** What role does a mediation process play to resolve a conflict? ----------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **In-depth research question** How is mediation process conducted in resolving divorce related marital conflicts in the South Region of Cameroon? D. **Research Question Types** Qualitative and quantitative research are the two major types of research, and it is essential to develop research questions for each type of study.  ***Quantitative Research Questions*** Quantitative research questions are specific. A typical research question involves the population to be studied, dependent and independent variables, and the research design. In addition, quantitative research questions connect the research question and the research design. It is not possible to answer these questions definitively with a "yes" or "no" response. As a consequence, quantitative research questions do not contain [qualitative, categorical, or ordinal](https://stats.idre.ucla.edu/other/mult-pkg/whatstat/what-is-the-difference-between-categorical-ordinal-and-interval-variables/) qualifiers such as "is," "are," "does," or "does not." **Categories of quantitative research questions** **Descriptive research questions** Attempt to describe the behavior of a population in regard to one or more variables or describe characteristics of those variables that will be measured. These are usually "What?" questions. -------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Comparative research questions** Seek to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable. These questions can be causal as well. Researchers may compare groups in which certain variables are present with groups in which they are not. **Relationship research questions ** Designed to elucidate and describe trends and interactions among variables. These questions include the dependent and independent variables and use words such as "association" or "trends." ***Qualitative Research Questions*** In quantitative research, research questions have the potential to relate to broad research areas as well as more specific areas of study. Qualitative research questions are less directional, more flexible, and adaptable compared with their quantitative counterparts. Thus, studies based on these questions tend to focus on "discovering," "explaining," "elucidating," and "exploring." **Categories of qualitative research questions** **Contextual research questions** Attempt to identify and describe existing conditions. ------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Descriptive research questions** Attempt to describe a phenomenon. **Evaluation research questions** Assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures. **Explanatory research questions** Examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena. **Exploratory research questions ** Focus on the unknown aspects of a particular topic. **Good and Bad Research Question Examples** Below are some good (and not-so-good) examples of research questions that researchers can use to guide them in crafting their own research questions. **Research Question Example** **Vague Research Question** *How are children affected by exposure to social media?* -------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Specific Research Question** *What is the effect of Instagram Likes on the self-esteem of young children under the age of 12?* The first research question is too vague in both its independent and dependent variables. There is no specific information on what "exposure" means. Does this refer to comments, likes, engagement, or just how much time is spent on the social media platform? Second, there is no useful information on what exactly "affected" means. Does the subject's behavior change in some measurable way? Or does this term refer to another factor such as the user's emotions? II. **Establishing Your Constraints** Establishing clear constraints when writing a dissertation is essential for maintaining focus, ensuring a structured approach, and managing the complexity of research. These constraints help define the scope and boundaries of your work, guiding your research and writing processes. Here are key constraints to consider: **1. Research Focus and Scope** - **Research Question**: Clearly define your research question or hypothesis. It is the foundation of your dissertation and will guide your methodology, analysis, and conclusions. - **Limitations in Scope**: Identify what your dissertation will and will not cover. This helps in narrowing down your focus and preventing your research from becoming too broad or unmanageable. - **Objectives**: Specify the main objectives of your research. What are you aiming to achieve? Keep your goals focused and realistic. **2. Time Constraints** - **Deadline**: The timeframe in which you need to complete your dissertation is a critical constraint. Plan and structure your work to ensure that you can meet deadlines, including intermediate milestones like literature review, data collection, analysis, and drafting. - **Time for Each Section**: Allocate specific time periods for different sections of the dissertation (e.g., literature review, data analysis, writing conclusions), and be realistic about how long each part will take. **3. Resource Constraints** - **Available Data**: Be realistic about the data you can access for your research. Identify any limitations in data availability, access, or reliability, and determine how these limitations will influence your research design. - **Access to Resources**: Consider the availability of research materials, libraries, software, and research participants (if applicable). Constraints on these resources might affect your methodology and outcomes. - **Budget**: If your dissertation involves any form of primary research, such as experiments, surveys, or fieldwork, ensure that your budget (if any) is considered and that the scope of your research remains feasible. **4. Methodological Constraints** - **Research Method**: Decide whether you will use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods and stick to those. The method you choose will determine how you collect, analyze, and interpret your data. - **Sample Size/Population**: Define the size of your sample or the population you are studying. If it\'s not feasible to collect data from a large group, you must acknowledge the limitations this might have on generalizability. - **Geographical/Contextual Limits**: If your research is region-specific or context-specific (such as a case study), you must constrain your work to that area or group to maintain focus and relevance. **5. Theoretical and Conceptual Constraints** - **Theoretical Framework**: Clearly define the theoretical lenses through which you will analyze your research question. Make sure these frameworks align with your objectives and do not become too broad or disconnected from your topic. - **Conceptual Focus**: Keep your key concepts well-defined and avoid incorporating too many ideas that could dilute the focus of your research. **6. Literature Review Boundaries** - **Selection of Sources**: Be strategic in choosing which literature to include. Focus on sources that are directly relevant to your research question and objectives, and avoid veering into areas that are only tangentially related. - **Timeframe of Literature**: You may choose to focus on literature from a certain period (e.g., last 5-10 years) to maintain a sense of currency, or you might need to explore foundational works that go further back. Ensure that the timeline aligns with the scope of your dissertation. **7. Ethical Constraints** - **Ethical Guidelines**: Adhere to ethical standards when conducting research, especially if it involves human participants, data privacy, or sensitive topics. Obtain any necessary ethics approvals before starting your data collection. - **Confidentiality and Anonymity**: Ensure that you respect confidentiality and anonymity where required, particularly in case studies, surveys, and interviews. **8. Academic and Institutional Constraints** - **University Requirements**: Each institution has specific guidelines for formatting, referencing, and structuring dissertations. Make sure you adhere to these requirements. - **Adviser Input**: The advice and direction from your dissertation advisor or supervisor are critical. Ensure that you establish clear communication with your advisor and respect any academic constraints they suggest. - **Field of Study Expectations**: Some disciplines have conventions regarding structure, style, or methodology. For example, a dissertation in humanities might have different expectations compared to one in the sciences. Be aware of these nuances. **9. Writing Constraints** - **Word Count**: Adhere to the expected word count limits for your dissertation. This will affect how deeply you explore certain topics and the overall structure. - **Writing Style and Tone**: Follow the required writing style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). Maintain an academic and formal tone throughout the dissertation. - **Clarity and Precision**: Writing should be concise and clear. Avoid unnecessary complexity or jargon that could obscure the meaning of your work. **10. Feedback and Revision Constraints** - **Feedback Schedule**: Be sure to allow time for feedback from your advisor and possibly peers. Plan for at least a few rounds of revisions based on their input. - **Incorporating Changes**: You may need to refine your ideas or analysis based on feedback, but be cautious not to radically shift direction unless it enhances your argument and is within the scope. By clearly establishing these constraints, you\'ll ensure that your dissertation remains focused, manageable, and well-aligned with both academic expectations and personal capabilities. III. **Formats for Scientific Papers and Research Projects.** When writing scientific papers and research projects, it's essential to follow a structured format to ensure clarity, coherence, and adherence to academic standards. Below is an overview of common formats used for scientific papers and research projects, as well as specific details on each section: **1. IMRaD Format (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion)** The IMRaD structure is the most common format used in scientific writing, especially for experimental research papers. It is a clear, organized way to present the research process and findings. **a. Title** - The title should be concise and descriptive, providing a clear indication of the topic and scope of the research. - It often includes key terms related to the research question or experiment. **b. Abstract** - A brief summary (usually 150-250 words) that encapsulates the entire study. - It includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, key results, and the main conclusion. - The abstract should be self-contained, allowing readers to understand the core of the research without reading the full paper. **c. Introduction** - **Background Information**: Provide a brief overview of the existing literature and context for the research. - **Research Problem or Question**: State the problem, research question, or hypothesis. - **Objectives**: Define the purpose of the study, what it aims to investigate, and why it is important. - **Significance**: Explain the relevance of the research in advancing knowledge in the field. - **Overview of Methodology** (optional): Sometimes a very brief description of how the research will be conducted is included. **d. Methods (Methodology)** - This section details how the research was conducted and includes: - **Study Design**: Type of study (e.g., experimental, observational, survey). - **Participants or Subjects**: Who or what was studied. - **Data Collection Methods**: Describes instruments, techniques, or procedures used to gather data. - **Analysis Methods**: Explain the statistical tests, data processing, or any analytical approach used. - The methods should be detailed enough for another researcher to replicate the study. **e. Results** - Present the findings of the research without interpretation. - Use tables, graphs, and charts to display data clearly. - Report statistical analyses (e.g., p-values, confidence intervals) and important trends. - The results should focus on what was found, not why or how it happened. **f. Discussion** - **Interpretation of Results**: Explain the implications of your findings. Discuss how the results answer the research question or support/refute the hypothesis. - **Comparison with Existing Literature**: Compare your findings to previous studies and highlight any similarities or differences. - **Limitations**: Acknowledge any weaknesses in the study design or data collection that may impact the results. - **Future Directions**: Suggest areas for further research or how the study could be improved. **g. Conclusion** - A brief, final summary of the research, its findings, and implications. This section may overlap with the discussion, but the conclusion should focus on a concise wrap-up of the study's significance. - Sometimes, the conclusion is integrated with the discussion. **h. References** - List all the sources cited throughout the paper. - Use a specific citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) depending on the journal, institution or academic discipline. IV. **Ethical and Legal Considerations in Research** Ethical and legal considerations in research are fundamental to ensuring the integrity, fairness, and safety of scientific inquiry, as well as protecting the rights and welfare of participants. These considerations encompass a range of principles, laws, and regulations that guide researchers in conducting their studies responsibly and transparently. A. **Ethical Considerations** Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people. The goals of research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. Ethical considerations stand to protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity maintain scientific or academic integrity. **1. The Importance of Ethical Considerations** Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects. One will balance pursuing important research objectives with using ethical research methods and procedures. It is always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not. Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it is hard for others to trust data of a researcher if the methods are morally questionable. Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it does not justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants. **2. Getting ethical approval for your study** Before a researcher starts any study involving data collection with people, she or he shall submit her or his research proposal to an institutional review board or an ethical committee. The committee will check whether the research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow the institution's code of conduct. It ensures that research materials and procedures are up to code. If successful, the researcher receives the committee approval, and can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If the researcher wants to make any changes to the research procedures or materials, he or she will need to submit a modification application to the ethical committee for approval. **3. Ethical Aspects** The aspects below fundamentally constitute ethical steps to be observed by the researcher in the course of the research. Voluntary participation Participants are free to opt in or out of the study at any point in time. ------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Informed consent Participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and funding behind the study before they agree or decline to join. Anonymity Personally identifiable data is not collected. Confidentiality Researcher knows who the participants are but keeps that information hidden from everyone else. Anonymize personally identifiable data so that it cannot be linked to other data by anyone else. Potential for harm Physical, social, psychological and all other types of harm are kept to an absolute minimum. Results communication Ensure the work is free of plagiarism or research misconduct, and accurately represent results. - **Voluntary participation** Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion. All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Participants do not need to provide a reason for leaving the study. It is important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. When recruiting participants for an experiment, the researcher shall inform all potential participants that they are free to choose whether they want to participate, and they can withdraw from the study anytime without any negative repercussions. Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct. Take special care must be taken to ensure there is no pressure on participants when working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to. - **Informed consent** Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study's benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval. The researcher must also let the participants know that their data will be kept confidential, and they are free to stop filling in the survey at any point for any reason. In research with children, the research often needs informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it is important to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level. - **Anonymity** The researcher can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information---for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos. In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection. Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where the researcher replaces identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants but it is harder to do so because the researcher separates personal information from the study data. The asks participants to enter demographic information including their age, gender identity, nationality, and ethnicity. With all this information, it may be possible for other people to identify individual participants, so he or she shall pseudonymize the data. - **Confidentiality** Confidentiality means that the researcher knows who the participants are, but removes all identifying information from your report. All participants have a right to privacy, so the researcher should protect their personal data for as long as the researcher stores or uses it. Even when he or she cannot collect data anonymously, should secure confidentiality whenever you possible. To secure the data confidential, the researcher must take steps to safeguard them and prevent any threats to data privacy. Some research designs are not conducive to confidentiality, but it is important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved. - **Potential for harm** A researcher must have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms. Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety. Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma. Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures. Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy. It is best to consider every possible source of harm in the study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. The researcher can involve supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction. Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with counseling. - **Results Communication** The way results of a research is communicated your re can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It is best to make results as transparent as possible. Ethical communication of research results is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the research process and fostering trust between researchers, participants, and the broader community. By adhering to these ethical principles, researchers can ensure that their work is trustworthy, impactful, and responsible, contributing positively to both the academic community and society. B. **Steps to Avoid Plagiarism** Plagiarism means submitting others' works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else's work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It is an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers. To avoid plagiarism, always cite your sources when using information from others, paraphrase ideas in your own words, use quotation marks when directly quoting text, and carefully manage your research materials by keeping track of where information comes from; ensure you follow a recognized citation style like APA. In the table below, there are different types of plagiarism described: **Types of Plagiarism** **Description** ------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Direct Plagiarism Copying another's work word-for-word without attribution. Accidental Plagiarism Unintentional plagiarism during research and writing. Mosaic Plagiarism Assembling text from multiple sources without citing them. Source-Based Plagiarism Citing false references to give credibility. Verbatim Plagiarism Copying information directly without citation. Patchwork Plagiarism Combining pieces from different sources, often without proper citation. Paraphrasing Plagiarism Restating someone else's content using your words without citation. Self-Plagiarism Recycling one's own previous work without citation 1. **Keeping Track of Sources** One of the most common ways that students commit plagiarism is by simply forgetting where an idea came from and unintentionally presenting it as their own. The researcher can easily avoid this pitfall by keeping his or her notes organized and compiling a list of [[citations]](https://www.scribbr.com/category/citing-sources/) as he or she proceeds. Highlight statements that need citations, and carefully mark any text copied directly from a source with quotation marks. The researcher shall make sure to write down the full details of every source she or he consulted. That include not only books and journal articles, but also things like websites, magazine articles, and videos. This makes it easy to go back and check where she or he found a phrase, fact, or idea that will be used in the paper. 2. **Avoiding Plagiarism when Quoting** [[Quoting]](https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/how-to-quote/) means copying a piece of text word for word. The copied text must be introduced in the words of the researcher, enclosed in [[quotation marks]](https://www.scribbr.com/language-rules/quotation-marks/), and correctly attributed to the original author. In general, quote sparingly. Quotes are appropriate when: - The researcher uses an exact statement by the original author - It is impossible for the researcher to rephrase the original text without losing its meaning Long quotations should be formatted as [[block quotes]](https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/block-quote/). But for longer blocks of text, it's usually better to paraphrase instead. 3. **Avoiding Plagiarism when Paraphrasing** [[Paraphrasing]](https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/how-to-paraphrase/) means using your own words to explain something from a source. Paraphrasing does **not** mean just switching out a few words from a copy-pasted text. To paraphrase properly, the researcher should rewrite the author's point in her or his own words to show that you have fully understood it. The researcher must ensure that the rephrased content is both original and properly credited. 4. **Citing Sources Correctly** Every time the researcher quotes or paraphrases, he or she must include an [[in-text]](https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/6th-edition/archived-in-text-citation/) or [[footnote citation]](https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/what-are-footnotes/) clearly identifying the original author. Each citation must correspond to a full reference in the [[reference list]](https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-reference-page/) or [[bibliography]](https://www.scribbr.com/chicago-style/bibliography/) at the end of your paper. This acknowledges the source of information, avoiding plagiarism, and it helps the readers locate the source for themselves if they would like to learn more. There are many different citation styles, each with its own rules. A few common styles are [[APA]](https://www.scribbr.com/category/apa-style/6th-edition/), [[MLA]](https://www.scribbr.com/category/mla/), and [[Chicago]](https://www.scribbr.com/?cat_ID=6173). The university of Buea instruct the APA style for its students. Most importantly, one style must be applied consistently throughout the text. 5. **Using a Plagiarism Checker** Most universities use plagiarism checkers to detect potential plagiarism. Here is [[how plagiarism checkers work]](https://www.scribbr.com/plagiarism/how-do-plagiarism-checkers-work/): they scan your document, compare it to a database of webpages and publications, and highlight passages that appear similar to other texts. The researcher must consider using a [[plagiarism checker]](https://www.scribbr.com/plagiarism-checker/) before submitting the paper. This allows you to identify issues that could constitute accidental plagiarism, such as: - Forgotten or misplaced citations - Missing quotation marks - Paraphrased material that is too similar to the original text 6. **Using AI tools responsibly** Generative AI tools like ChatGPT can be helpful at different stages of the writing and research process. However, these tools can also be used to plagiarize in various ways (whether intentionally or unintentionally). When using these tools, it's important to avoid the following: - **AI-assisted plagiarism:** Passing off AI-generated text as your own work (e.g., research papers, homework assignments) - **Plagiarism:** Using the tool to paraphrase content from another source and passing it off as original work - **Self-plagiarism:** Using the tool to rewrite a paper you previously submitted It's important to use AI tools responsibly and to be aware that AI-generated outputs may be detected by the plagiarism system of the university. C. **Intellectual Property and Copyright** are both important concepts in law that protect creations of the mind, but they have different meanings and applications. Copyright is a type of intellectual property (IP) that gives the creator of an original work the right to control how it\'s used, reproduced, and distributed a. **Intellectual Property** Intellectual Property refers to a category of legal rights that protect the creations of the mind. It includes intangible assets like inventions, literary and artistic works, designs, symbols, names, and images. IP allows creators or owners to control the use of their creations, thereby providing economic incentives to innovate and create. IP can be divided into the following types: 1. **Patents** -- Protect inventions and technological innovations. A patent grants the inventor the exclusive right to use, sell, or license the invention for a certain period (usually 20 years). 2. **Trademarks** -- Protect distinctive marks, logos, symbols, names, or other identifiers used in commerce to distinguish goods or services. Trademarks can last indefinitely as long as they are actively used. 3. **Design Rights** -- Protect the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian, such as the shape or appearance of a product. Design protection can last up to 25 years, depending on the jurisdiction. 4. **Trade Secrets** -- Protect confidential business information, such as formulas, processes, or methods, that gives a business a competitive edge. Protection lasts as long as the information remains secret. 5. **Copyright** -- A specific type of intellectual property that protects original works of authorship such as literature, music, art, and software. b. **Copyright** Copyright is a form of IP that protects the expression of ideas rather than the ideas themselves. It applies to original works of authorship, including literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works. Copyright does not protect facts, ideas, methods, or systems, but only the creative expression of those ideas. **Key Points about Copyright:** 1. **Automatic Protection**: In most countries, copyright protection is automatic once a work is created and fixed in a tangible form (e.g., written, recorded, or saved electronically). 2. **Exclusive Rights**: The copyright holder has exclusive rights to: - Reproduce the work - Distribute copies of the work - Perform the work publicly - Display the work publicly - Create derivative works based on the original 3. **Duration**: The length of copyright protection varies by country, but it typically lasts for the lifetime of the author plus 50 to 100 years. For works created by companies or anonymous authors, it may last a fixed number of years from the date of creation or publication. 4. **Fair Use/Fair Dealing**: In many jurisdictions, the use of copyrighted works is allowed under certain circumstances without the author\'s permission, such as for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research. These are known as \"fair use\" (U.S.) or \"fair dealing\" (U.K. and others). 5. **Transfer of Rights**: The copyright holder can transfer or license their rights to others, allowing them to use the work under specified conditions. 6. **Infringement**: If someone uses a copyrighted work without permission in a way that violates the exclusive rights of the copyright holder, it constitutes copyright infringement, which may lead to legal actions and remedies such as damages and injunctions. V. **APA Reference Style** The **APA (American Psychological Association)** style is commonly used in the social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and education. Below is an overview of how to format references in APA style for different types of sources. **Referencing within the Text** In APA style, in-text citations are used to acknowledge the source of information you refer to in your writing. The format varies slightly depending on the number of authors and the type of source (e.g., books, articles, websites). Here\'s a guide for different situations: **1. Single Author:** - **Format**: (Author's Last Name, Year) - **Example**: (Smith, 2020) **2. Two Authors:** - **Format**: (Author 1's Last Name & Author 2's Last Name, Year) - **Example**: (Smith & Jones, 2020) **3. Three or More Authors:** - **Format**: (Author 1's Last Name et al., Year) - **Example**: (Smith et al., 2020) **4. No Author (e.g., a website or article):** - **Format**: (Title of the Work, Year) - **Example**: (\"Climate Change Report,\" 2020) **5. Multiple Citations in One Parenthesis:** - **Format**: (Author 1, Year; Author 2, Year) - **Example**: (Smith, 2020; Johnson, 2021) **6. Direct Quotes:** If you are directly quoting from a source, you should include the page number (or paragraph number for online sources without page numbers). - **Format**: (Author's Last Name, Year, p. \#) - **Example**: (Smith, 2020, p. 25) **7. Corporate Author (e.g., organizations or government bodies):** - **Format**: (Organization Name, Year) - **Example**: (American Psychological Association, 2020) **8. Secondary Sources (when citing a source cited in another source):** - **Format**: (Original Author, Year, as cited in Secondary Author, Year) - **Example**: (Brown, 1995, as cited in Smith, 2020) **B. List of References** A list of references is a list of all sources that are cited in a piece of writing, and is used to help readers find the sources and to credit the authors. It should appear at the end of the paper. **1. Books:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year). *Title of the book* (Edition, if applicable). Publisher. **Example:** - Smith, J. D. (2018). *Psychology and behavior* (3rd ed.). Academic Press. **2. Journal Articles:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the article. *Title of the Journal, Volume number*(Issue number), page range. https://doi.org/xxxx **Example:** - Johnson, L. M., & Wang, S. (2020). Cognitive development in children. *Journal of Developmental Psychology, 45*(2), 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1234/jdp.2020.00987 **3. Website:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of the webpage. *Website Name*. URL **Example:** - Williams, T. (2021, June 15). Understanding social media impact. *Psychology Today*. **4. Edited Book Chapter:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the chapter. In E. E. Editor & F. F. Editor (Eds.), *Title of the book* (pp. xxx-xxx). Publisher. **Example:** - Lee, K. (2017). Cognitive development in adolescents. In J. Brown & L. Harris (Eds.), *Child psychology in the 21st century* (pp. 110-130). Academic Press. **5. Conference Paper:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year, Month). Title of the paper. *Paper presented at the Title of the Conference*, Location. URL (if available) **Example:** - Patel, M. R. (2019, November). Cognitive strategies in problem-solving. *Paper presented at the Annual Conference of Psychological Research*, Chicago, IL. https://doi.org/10.1234/xyz **6. Online Report:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of the report (Report No. xxx). Publisher. URL **Example:** - Adams, J. P. (2020, December 12). *The state of mental health in 2020* (Report No. 78). National Institute of Health. [[https://www.nih.gov/reports/mentalhealth2020]](https://www.nih.gov/reports/mentalhealth2020) **7. Government Publication:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the report (Report No. xxx). Publisher. URL **Example:** - U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2020). *Mental health and wellness* (Report No. HHS-123). **8. Online News Article:** **Format:** - Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of the article. *Title of the News Website*. URL **Example:** - Thompson, R. (2023, January 5). New research on sleep patterns in teens. *The New York Times*. [[https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/05/health/teens-sleep-research]](https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/05/health/teens-sleep-research) **Key Points to Remember:** - **Author(s):** Use the author's last name, followed by a comma and the first initials. For multiple authors, separate them with commas, using an ampersand (&) before the last author\'s name. - **Date:** Use the year, followed by the month and day if available. - **Title:** Italicize the titles of books, journals, and reports. For articles or book chapters, use regular font (not italics), and capitalize only the first word and proper nouns. - **Publisher:** Omit terms like \"Company\" or \"Inc.\" unless it is a recognized publisher.