Scientific Paper Writing Guide PDF

Information Sources Scholarly Sources: Scholarly Sources: Popular Sources:  Review articles  The Significance of a Good Research Scientific Paper Writing...

Information Sources Scholarly Sources: Scholarly Sources: Popular Sources:  Review articles  The Significance of a Good Research Scientific Paper Writing Question The first and most important step in scientific paper writing is A good research question: to choose your research question. Gives the researchers more clarity on developing the You must choose a topic that will advance and add to the study protocol, designing the study, and analyzing the existing scientific knowledge. data. Even the journal editor won’t accept a paper that does not Makes a good initial impression on the scientific have a good research question. journal editors and peer reviewers. Shows a well-thought research. Increases your chances of publication in the journal. Suggestions for Aspects of writing a paper Writing Good Scientific Papers Contents Know your audience and write for that specific audience Language Void of anecdotes or stories Scientific and technical writing is never a 'general purpose‘, but Reports facts not outlandish conclusions written for a specific audience, i.e. the community who read a No misspellings particular journal or study a particular subject. Grammatical accuracy You must adopt the style and level of writing that is appropriate Figures and Tables for your audience. Study them as they are manifested in a Literature (introduction, discussion) selection of highly regarded papers and in the "Instructions for Authors" for key journals. Choosing a Journal First draft Submitting draft to supervisor  Suggestions for Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers Writing Good Scientific Papers Your supervisor/professor is not here to teach you basic grammar and spelling Do Not Turn in a First Draft! The more time and emotional energy she or he spends on Ever! Most people's first drafts are terrible. "Good writing is correcting basic English usage, the less remains for issues of rewriting," and you should make a serious effort at editing, content or fine-tuning. You are responsible for mastering the rewriting, and fine-tuning before you give the manuscript to basics of the language. With word processors and anyone else to read. If you need to put a piece of writing away spellcheckers having become standard writing tools, typos or for a few days before you can approach it dispassionately other spelling errors should be very rare. enough to rework it, do so. Suggestions for Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers Writing Good Scientific Papers Use an outline to organize your ideas and writing Think about the structure of paragraphs When you first start a writing project, make an outline of the major headings. List the key ideas to be covered under each Though most students can write reasonable sentences, a heading. Organize your thinking logic and the logic of your surprising number have difficulty organizing sentences into arguments at this level, not when you are trying to write effective paragraphs. A paragraph should begin with a topic complete, grammatical, and elegant sentences. sentence that sets the stage clearly for what will follow. Make topic sentences short and direct. Build the paragraph from the Separate out the three tasks of: (1) figuring out what you ideas introduced in your topic sentence and make the flow of want to say, (2) planning the order and logic of your individual sentences follow a logical sequence. arguments, and (3) crafting the exact language in which you will express your ideas.  Suggestions for Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers Writing Good Scientific Papers Captions should not merely name a table or figure, they should explain how to read it Write about your results, not your tables, figures, and statistics A caption (figure or table heading) should contain sufficient information so that a reader can understand a table or figure, Confusing and disjointed Results sections often arise because in most cases, without reference to the text. Very simple the writer does not have a clear idea of the story she/he tables and figures may require only a title for clarity, and intends to tell. When preparing to write your results, decide exceptionally complex ones may require reference to the text on the elements of the story you wish to tell, then choose the for explanation. subset of text, figures, and tables that most effectively and concisely coveys your message. Organize this subset of tables and figures in a logical sequence; then write your story Do not leave caption writing to the end of the project; write around them. captions when you organize your Results section and it will help you write the text. Suggestions for Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers Writing Good Scientific Papers Develop a strategy for your Discussion Introductions and conclusions are the hardest parts Many novice paper writers begin their Discussion section with a Many technical writers prefer to write their introductions last statement about problems with their methods or the items in because it is too difficult to craft that balance of general context their results about which they feel most insecure. Unless these and specific focus required for a good introduction. If you need to really are the most important thing about your research (in write the introduction first to set the stage for your own thinking, which case you have problems), save them for later. Begin a resist the temptation to perfect it. The introduction will likely Discussion with a short restatement of the most important need substantial modification by the time you have finished the points from your results. Use this statement to set up the ideas rest of the paper. The same concerns apply to conclusions, you want to focus on in interpreting your results and relating abstracts, and summaries. These components of the paper are all them to the literature. Use sub-headings that structure the that many people will read, and you must get your message discussion around these ideas. across in as direct, crisp, and enticing a manner as possible.  Suggestions for Writing Good Scientific Papers The Scientific Paper A well-written scientific paper explains the scientist's motivation for doing Take editorial comments seriously an experiment, the experimental design and execution, and the meaning of the results. Scientific papers are written in a style that is exceedingly clear and concise. Their purpose is to inform an audience of other scientists about an important issue and to document the particular It may be clear from an editor's comments that they did not approach they used to investigate that issue. understand the point you were making. If so, that is a clear Please do not think that good English is not critical in science writing. In indication that you need to improve your writing. Also, an fact, scientists try to be so concise that their English should be better than editor, no matter who they might be, has invested their time that of workers in other disciplines! If English is not your first language, then proofreading by a native-speaker might be helpful. to help improve the quality of your writing. Respect their investment. If you have read scientific papers, you will have noticed that a standard format is frequently used. This format allows a researcher to present information clearly and concisely. Manuscript Structure Abstract Introduction Methods and Materials Results Figures and Tables Discussion and Conclusions Acknowledgements References (Literature Cited) The Title Abstract An abstract is a shortened version of the paper and should contain all information necessary for the reader to determine: (1) what the objectives of the study were; (2) how the study was done; (3) what results were obtained; (4) and the significance of the results. Frequently, readers of a scientific journal will only read the abstract, choosing to read at length those papers that are most interesting to them. For this reason, and because abstracts are frequently made available to scientists by various computer abstracting services, this section should be written carefully and succinctly to have the greatest impact in as few words as possible. Although it appears as the first section in a paper, most scientists write the abstract section last.  Abstract Summary of Manuscript (200-300 Words) Problem investigated Purpose of Research Methods Results Conclusion Common Mistakes – Too much background or methods information – Figures or images – References to other literature, figures or images – Abbreviations or acronyms Introduction Introduction Why is this study of scientific interest and what is your objective? Broad information on topic This section discusses the results and conclusions of previously published – Previous research studies, to help explain why the current study is of scientific interest. Narrower background information The Introduction is organized to move from general information to specific – Need for study information. The background must be summarized succinctly, but it should not be itemized. Limit the introduction to studies that relate directly to the present study. Emphasize your specific contribution to the topic. Focus of paper – Hypothesis The last sentences of the introduction should be a statement of objectives and a statement of hypotheses. This will be a good transition to the next Summary of problem (selling point) Overall 300-500 words section, Methods, in which you will explain how you proceeded to meet your objectives and test your hypotheses.  How to Cite Sources in the Introduction Section It is important to cite sources in the introduction section of your paper as Common Mistakes evidence of the claims you are making. There are ways of citing sources in the text so that the reader can find the full reference in the literature cited – Too much or not enough information section at the end of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted. – Unclear purpose – Lists Note that articles by one or two authors are always cited in the text using their last names. However, if there are more than two authors, the last – Confusing structure name of the 1st author is given followed by the abbreviation et al.. It is acceptable, and encouraged, to cite more than one source for a particular statement. This gives the statement more validity in its context and suggests that your research was thorough. Methods and Materials This section provides all the methodological details necessary for another scientist to duplicate your work. It should be a narrative of the steps you took in your experiment or study, not a list of instructions such as you might find in a cookbook. An important part of writing a scientific paper is deciding what bits of information needs to be given in detail. Do not quote or cite your laboratory manual! Sometimes, experimental details are given as supplementary part!  Methods and Materials Provides instruction on exactly how to repeat experiment – Subjects – Sample preparation techniques – Sample origins – Data collection protocol – Data analysis techniques – Any computer programs used – Description of equipment and its use Common Mistakes – Too little information – Information from Introduction Results Additional tips on the Results section Number tables and figures separately beginning with 1. Objective presentation of experiment results Do not attempt to evaluate the results in this section. Report only what – Summary of data you found; hold all discussion of the significance of the results for the Discussion section. NOT a Discussion! It is not necessary to describe every step of your statistical analyses. Likewise, cite tables and figures without describing in detail how the data Common mistakes were manipulated. Explanations of this sort should appear in a legend or caption written on the same page as the figure or table. – Raw data – Discussion and interpretation of data You must refer in the text to each figure or table in your paper. – No figures or tables Tables generally should report summary-level data, such as means ± – Methods/materials reported standard deviations, rather than all your raw data. Only use a figure (graph) when the data lend themselves to a good visual representation. Avoid using figures that show too many variables or trends at once.  Figures and Tables Do not include the same data in both a table and a Tables figure – Presents lists of numbers/ text in columns Figures It is best to present the data in a table unless there is visual information that can – Visual representation of results or illustration of be gained by using a figure. Each table and figure has several lines of text in the caption that explain the information that is being presented; this is, they are concepts/methods (graphs, images, diagrams, etc.) made to stand alone. A table's legend appears above it, while the legend for a figure appears below the figure. If your table includes the results of a statistical Captions analysis, be sure to provide the information necessary for the reader to properly – Must be stand-alone evaluate the analysis (sample size etc.). Guidelines for Figures and Tables – High resolution – Neat, legible labels – Simple – Clearly formatted – Indicate error – Detailed captions  Discussion Discussion Interpret results In this section, you are free to explain what the results mean or why they differ from what other workers have found. – Did the study confirm/deny the hypothesis? – If not, did the results provide an alternative hypothesis? What You should interpret your results in light of other published results, by adding interpretation can be made? additional information from sources you cited in the Introduction section as well as by introducing new sources. Make sure you provide accurate citations. – Do results agree with other research? Sources of error/anomalous data? Relate your discussion back to the objectives and questions you raised in the – Implications of study for field Introduction section. However, do not simply re-state the objectives. Make statements that synthesize all the evidence (including previous work and the – Suggestions for improvement and future research? current work). Relate to previous research Limit your conclusions to those that your data can actually support. You can Common Mistakes then proceed to speculate on why this occurred and whether you expected this to occur, based on other workers' findings. – New results discussed – Broad statements Suggest future directions for research, new methods, explanations for – Incorrectly discussing inconclusive results deviations from previously published results, etc. – Missing information  How to Cite Sources in the Discussion Section? References It is important to cite sources in the discussion section of your paper as This is the last section of the paper. Here you should provide an evidence of the claims you are making. There are ways of citing sources in alphabetical (or numbered according to the occurrence in your paper) the text so that the reader can find the full reference in the literature cited listing of all the published work you cited in the text of the paper. section at the end of the paper, yet the flow of the reading is not badly interrupted (see also Introduction). Note: in most journals, listed and numbered according to sequential appearance in text! Make sure you give a full citation in the Literature Cited section (“references”) for all sources mentioned in the text. A standard format is used both to cite literature in the text and to list these studies in the Literature Cited section. Consult a recent issue of the respective journal for guidance. For papers published in journals you must provide the date, title, journal name, volume number, and page numbers. For books you need the publication date, title, publisher, and place of publication. Check specific referencing style of journal  Federal Laws on Research Misconduct ▪ Public concern over research misconduct initially arose in the early 1980’s. ▪ At the time, research institutions sometimes ignored or covered up potential misconduct problems rather than investigate them. ▪ In December 2000 the Office of Science and Technology Policy adopted a federal policy on research misconduct. Research Misconduct What is it?: – The Department of Health and Human Services defines research misconduct as: – Fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research results. Fabrication: making up results and recording or reporting them Falsification: manipulation of research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting results such that the research is not accurately represented in the record. Plagiarism: the appropriation of another’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving proper credit. ORI - The Office of Research Integrity  Criteria for Research Misconduct ▪ Represents a significant departure from accepted practices ▪ Has been committed intentionally, or knowingly, or recklessly; and Department of Health & Human Services received ▪ Can be proven by a preponderance of 267 reports of research misconduct (2004) evidence 50% increase from 2003 ▪ What is NOT MISCONDUCT: honest, unintentional error 35% of closed cases involve research misconduct Misconduct IS NOT: an honest error, honest differences, differences of opinion academic + = Research Misconduct disagreement or debate, authorship disputes or appropriate co-author ranking. Top ten “POOR” behaviors Top ten behaviors 1. Falsifying or ‘cooking’ research data 2. Ignoring major aspects of human-subject requirements (continued) 3. Not properly disclosing involvement in firms whose 9. Overlooking others' use of flawed data or questionable products are based on one‘s own research interpretation of data 4. Relationships with students, research subjects or clients 10. Changing the design, methodology or results of a study in response to pressure from a funding source (falsification) that may be interpreted as questionable Other behaviors 5. Using another’s ideas without obtaining permission or 11. Publishing the same data or results in two or more giving due credit (plagiarism) publications 6. Unauthorized use of confidential information in 12. Inappropriately assigning authorship credit connection with one’s own research 13. Withholding details of methodology or results in papers or proposals 7. Failing to present data that contradict one’s own 14. Using inadequate or inappropriate research designs previous research ???? 15. Dropping observations or data points from analyses based 8. Circumventing certain minor aspects of human-subject on a gut feeling that they were inaccurate requirements 16. Inadequate record keeping related to research projects  Why does misconduct happen? Who Commits Research Misconduct? Graduate Student ▪ Publish or Perish Pressure Postdoctoral Fellow 16% ▪ Desire to “get ahead” 25% Senior PI ▪ Personal problems 21% Other Asst. Professor ▪ Character issues 21% or Scientist 17% ▪ Cultural Differences ▪ ??? How is misconduct identified Investigation Process Suspected and reported by a colleague Allegations reported to and assessed by RIO RIO reviews allegations, sequesters research Failure to confirm research results records, and if credible forwards to inquiry committee by own lab or others Inquiry report is made and if investigation is substantiated records are forwarded to the investigation committee Initial draft reviewed by RIO and DO (Provost), and final report sent to all parties (respondent, complainent, RIO, DO) Institutional decision and administrative action  Consequences (if misconduct is Investigation Process substantiated) Investigated Withdrawal or correction of all pending and – All authors that are involved in the specific data published papers and abstracts affected in question by the misconduct Held accountable Restitution of funds to the granting agency – Primary author Ineligibility to apply for federal grants for – Other authors whose results are found culpable years – The PI The end of your funded projects career! ORI Recommendations Case Example - Pat J. Palmer Adopt zero tolerance Fabricated 6 interview Protect whistleblowers Did I say I have a records Ph.D. in Clarify how to report Epidemiology? Train the mentors Fabricated claim of Ph.D. Model ethical behavior (B.S. and M.S. also) Falsified that she was co-author on 10 articles  Mentor Responsibilities Information Sources ▪ Mentors have the responsibility to ensure that ▪ “Fraud and the Role of Intensions” On Being A Scientist, Committee all trainees (post-docs, grad students, on the Conduct of Science, National Academy of Sciences. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1989, page 15, ISBN 0-309- undergrads) are aware of the responsible 04091-4 conduct of research ▪ Martinson, B., Anderson, M.,& de Vries, R., “Scientists behaving badly”. Journal of Nature 435, 737-738, June 2005. – Define the Relationship ▪ Office of Research Integrity http://ori.dhhs.gov/ ▪ Role of Trainee ▪ Office of Research Integrity: Case Summary-Pat J. Palmer. Federal ▪ Publication/Authorship Register: February 17, 2004, 69:31, 7488-7489. ▪ Serving as PI or Co-PI ▪ Steneck, Nicholas H. (2004) ORI: Introduction to the Responsible Conduct of Research. ▪ Obligation to report – Good faith report