Anthropology in a Diverse World Study Guide PDF

© 2017 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria APY1501/1/2018–2023 70479372 InDesign APY_Style  ...

© 2017 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria APY1501/1/2018–2023 70479372 InDesign APY_Style   CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY v LEARNING THEME 1: WHAT IS ANTHROPOLOGY? 1 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 1 Key concepts 1 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Anthropology and other disciplines 5 1.3 The subfields of anthropology 7 1.4 The anthropological perspective 10 1.5 Why become an anthropologist? 12 LEARNING THEME 2: THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL WAY 19 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 19 Key concepts 19 2.1 Introduction 20 2.2 Ethnographic fieldwork 21 2.3 Methodology and techniques 23 2.4 Preparing and entering the field 28 2.5 Anthropological self-criticism 30 LEARNING THEME 3: THE HUMAN SPECIES: WHERE DO WE COME FROM? 36 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 36 Key concepts 36 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 The development of human beings 38 3.3 Diversity in human biology and physique 43 LEARNING THEME 4: OUR BODIES, OUR SELVES 48 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 48 Key concepts 48 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Perceptions of the body 51 4.3 Body modifications 53 4.4 Body techniques 58 4.5 Embodiment 60 LEARNING THEME 5: CULTURE AND SOCIOCULTURAL SYSTEMS 64 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 64 Key concepts 64 APY1501/1/2018–2023 APY1501/1(iii) CONTENTS 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 Sociocultural systems 69 5.3 Characteristics of culture 72 LEARNING THEME 6: SOCIAL IDENTITY: THE SELF AND THE GROUP 79 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 79 Key concepts 79 6.1 Introduction 80 6.2 Identity and the self 81 6.3 Social and group identity 84 6.4 Identity expressed 88 LEARNING THEME 7: RELATIVES, RELATIONS, KINSHIP AND FAMILY 94 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 94 Key concepts 94 7.1 Introduction 95 7.2 Descent systems 97 7.3 Affinity structures 104 7.4 Family and contemporary households 110 7.5 Conclusion 116 LEARNING THEME 8: RELIGION, FUNDAMENTALISM AND RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE 118 Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 118 Key concepts 118 8.1 Introduction 119 8.2 An anthropological approach to the study of religion 121 8.3 Religious concepts, beings, entities and forces 128 8.4 Religious communication 136 8.5 Fundamentalism 145 8.6 Religious violence 151 8.7 Conclusion ? BIBLIOGRAPHY 157 (iv)  INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology is the study of ourselves and others and appreciating our own and other people’s ways of being and doing Module orientation In this section, we will outline the purpose and objectives of this module, explain our approach and outline the structure and contents of this study guide. Purpose, objective and learning outcomes Anthropology is not only about “discovering” other people, but also about gaining a better un- derstanding of ourselves and our own behaviour. The purpose of this module is to introduce you to anthropology, a discipline that focuses on human beings everywhere, both past and present. The objective (broad, general aim) of this module is to: help you think like an anthropologist, through learning from other anthropologists and re- flecting on and sharing own experiences expose you to human behaviour in its different contexts, through constructively engaging with the learning material enable you to analyse ways in which humans organise their contact and interactions with others through applying newly developed anthropological skills cultivate mutual understanding and tolerance between people and communities through employing the insights and sensitivity developed Learning and experiential strategy In this module, we want you to learn about anthropology and develop your skills to view the world through the eyes of an anthropologist. We will therefore not focus on specific selected societies and their behaviour patterns, instead we will explore anthropology and humanity by progressively discovering and experiencing how to think like an anthropologist – in other words, how to adopt an anthropological approach and use anthropological skills. We will also consistently draw contemporary issues and events into the learning process to remind you that anthropology is “now” and “real”. We believe that you learn most effectively if you are actively involved in the process. This is not difficult to achieve – anthropology, after all, is all around you, wherever there are people. Not APY1501/1(v) INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY everybody is in a position to spend time living with people in another context or in a community other than their own. There are other ways of gaining this experience or, at least, simulating it. In your own environment, you are sure to find cultural practices that differ from yours. The availability of ethnographic data and cultural expressions of people around the world on the internet has expanded the anthropologist’s study field. In this module, we will make use of these resources to expose you to ways of “participating” in the work of anthropologists. Against this background, the purpose of this study guide is therefore not to transmit knowledge, which you merely memorise, instead, the study guide is designed to initiate ideas, to help you analyse the issues involved, and stimulate you to think about what you are studying. To achieve this, you need to engage constructively with all the learning material. It is your re- sponsibility to perform the learning assignments and participate in the discussions. The learning and study materials for this module consist of this study guide and the various tutorial letters that you will receive from time to time. If you wish to read more about the field and scope of this module, please consult the list of literature cited in the learning themes and at the back of the study guide. When you consult other sources, reflect upon the ideas and information you find and share them in your online discussions. Study guide This study guide also serves as your textbook, since it includes all the work you need to master for this module. It also provides guidelines on how to go about your studies. To pass this module, you need to carefully follow the instructions and guidelines given in this study guide. NOTE: You do not need to purchase a textbook, since all the prescribed and other relevant material is included in this study guide. Table of contents The comprehensive table of contents gives an outline of the module and syllabus. Use this to orientate yourself when you approach a specific learning theme or when you want to refer to a specific idea, principle, theory or concept in your learning material. Learning theme The module is structured in eight learning themes. Each learning theme is provided with an overview, which is similar to a contents page and is intended to give you an outline of the different topics and sections that make up the learning theme. Learning outcomes Every learning theme has its own learning outcomes, listed at the beginning of the learning theme. The outcomes indicate what you should know, be able to do and will be assessed against. Key concepts At the beginning of each learning theme we provide a list of key concepts. These concepts make up the “vocabulary” of anthro- pology and without them you will not be able to answer the examination questions. After working through the learning themes, summarise and make notes about the meaning of each concept. These notes should contain definitions of concepts as well as characteristics of the phenomena represented by the concepts. This can be used to help you revise a learning theme. (vi)  INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY Critical questions There is a list of critical questions at the beginning of the learning theme. These questions are intended to give you an idea of what the theme and the learning unit entails. Evaluate your understanding of the learning theme by responding to these critical questions. Cross-references Pay attention to the cross-references in different learning themes. Whenever we refer to a learning theme that has already been dis- cussed, please read the reference – this will refresh your memory and facilitate your understanding of the information at hand. To become aware of the diversity of topics that we deal with in anthropology, we will also occasionally refer you to electronically available material. Activities Learning is an active process that requires you to become involved or to interact with the information. We have provided you with opportunities to do this by including offline and online activities and topics for discussion at various places in the study guide. Because a dialogue does not consist of one voice only, you should actively participate in the debates. To enable you to do this, we have designed activities that allow you to be creative and inno- vative, to think for yourself, to raise your own voice and to be included in the debates. The activities attempt to link the subject matter with reality. In your responses to the activities you are often required to draw on your own experience and practical knowledge, and to take into account daily events such as those reported in the media. It is important that you complete the activities and share your ideas. This is an opportunity for you to evaluate and demonstrate your understanding of the learning material. It is an important and valuable learning tool in distance and online education. Do not make the mistake of doing the activities “in your head” or, worse, ignoring them. Completing them is an integral part of your learning experience. The activities and questions encourage you to reflect on the material and assess your progress against the learning outcomes. Self-assessment Online activities are provided at the end of each learning theme to enable you to revise, evaluate and reflect about what you have learned. You can use the multiple-choice quizzes to assess your own understanding of the study material and prepare for the final exam. APY1501/1(vii) INTRODUCTION, ORIENTATION AND WELCOME TO ANTHROPOLOGY Assignments Some of the assignments for this module are provided in Tutorial Letter 101. The completion of assignments is crucial to achieve the learning outcomes. By completing the assignments, you can develop a feeling for the type of question you can expect in the examination and obtain first-hand feedback from your lecturer or e-tutor. The assignment questions might, for instance, provide you with the opportunity to apply theory to a case study or a practical situation related to your own workplace. Please keep the follow- ing in mind when working through this module: Think about the material, the guidelines and issues in this module. Be innovative and aware of human circumstances and problems in your environment. Relate the theory to practical situations. Try to think beyond what is dealt with in this module, for example, think about your own experiences. Be original and critical. Make inferences and attempt to de- velop your own explanations and (anthropological) solutions to problems. Constantly monitor your progress. Assess your understanding of the information and your ability and the skills of anthropology. NOTE: Prepare a work schedule for the whole semester. Schedule your learning activities on a monthly, weekly and daily basis. Set aside a few hours each day to work through the different learning themes. Allow sufficient time for each learning theme. Allow time to write your assignments and to revise for the examination. Tutorial letters You will receive a number of tutorial letters, both when you register and during the course of the semester. You should give careful attention to all these tutorial letters. Note that you cannot begin studying this module without first consulting Tutorial Letter 101. We have compiled a departmental manual, which contains information on how you should com- municate with your lecturers and e-tutors as well as hints on study methods and examinations. This manual is entitled Tuto- rial Letter 301. Assessment You will be assessed on your assignments and online activities during the semester and in the examination that you write at the end of the semester. Unisa uses transparent assessment criteria that are directly linked to the outcomes of the module. The assignment marks will count towards your final mark, together with your examination assessment. Further details of the assessment and examination requirements of this module are provided in Tutorial Letter 101. (viii)  What is anthropology? LEARNING THEME 1 1 1: What is anthropology? Overview and learning outcomes (LOs) 1.1 Introduction LO: Explain what anthropology is and how an anthropologist thinks. 1.2 Anthropology and other disciplines LO: Describe perspectives that anthropology shares with and that differentiate it from other disciplines. 1.3 The subfields of anthropology LO: Discuss themes and interests of the four subfields that characterise anthropology. 1.4 The anthropological approach LO: Integrate different areas of concern to understand particular aspects of human behaviour. 1.5 Why become an anthropologist? LO: Identify contemporary human challenges and issues in which anthropologists po- tentially can make a contribution. Key concepts Anthropology Applied anthropology Archaeology Biological/ physical anthropology Comparative method Contextualisation Discipline Fields of application Holistic Linguistic anthropology Qualitative research Sociocultural anthropology Sociological theory Transferable APY1501/11 LEARNING THEME 1 Critical questions (1) What is anthropology and what does it study? (2) What characteristics distinguish anthropology from other disciplines? (3) What are the areas of specialisation in anthropology and how are they intercon- nected? (4) What does anthropology’s particular approach involve? (5) What is the relevance of anthropology in the contemporary world? 1.1 INTRODUCTION Every year, before registration, students contact us to find out more about anthropology. They want to know what our discipline is about and what anthropologists do. Essentially, anthropol- ogy is the study of humankind everywhere, both past and present. To understand the human condition, anthropologists experience people and places first-hand. To study people and their behaviour, our research often involves travelling – to do fieldwork – and spending time with communities in their own environment. Our projects can be in cities or towns, in rural or even very remote areas, in our own neighbourhood or country or even further afield in the world. Although our field of study is exciting, the general public often has a stereotypical perception of anthropology. Through the media, particularly Indiana Jones-like movies and programmes such as National Geographic, anthropology and archaeology are associated with images of mummies’ tombs, treks through tropical jungles, explorers discovering “lost tribes”, adventures in remote and exotic places and even the dietary preferences of cannibals. These conventional perceptions obscure the true nature of our profession and do not contribute to a better understanding of the discipline. Interesting Don’t sweat the small stuff … and it’s all small stuff ~Richard Carlson~ This little book provides guidelines for dealing with life’s problems and outlines strategies to respond to life more gracefully. The 100 brief chapters that make up the book include a chapter (Chapter 43) entitled, “Become an anthropologist”. Why did Carlson include anthropology in a self-help book? This is what he (Carlson 1997:111–112) says: I’ll conveniently redefine anthropology as ‘being interested, without judgement, in the way other people choose to live and behave’. This strategy is geared toward developing your compassion, as well as a way of becoming more patient. Beyond that, however, being interested in the way other people act is a way of replacing judgements with loving- kindness. When you are genuinely curious about the way someone reacts or the way they feel about something, it’s unlikely that you will also be annoyed. In this way, becoming an anthropologist is a way of becoming less frustrated by the actions of others. If you are interested, you can download an electronic copy of the book (500 KB), which you can access on the following link: https://zeeoctober.wordpress.com/2013/02/25/ dont-sweat-the-small-stuff-pdf/. 2  To accurately explain what anthropology is and what anthropologists do, is both simple and com- plex. The discipline concerns itself with a wide variety of questions that in one way or another, relate to the human condition and experience. For example, over the past year the South African media have reported on the following matters: violence against foreign African nationals and the phenomenon of xenophobia (the fear or hatred of foreigners) the ongoing controversy about the changing of place names in South Africa the coach of the national rugby team labelling supporters “racists” for criticising a (black) player, but not commenting on the affectionate roar of “Beast!” (the player’s nickname), by a mainly white crowd, when the player played particularly well the phenomenon of the farmer/evangelist, Angus Buchan, from Greytown, in KwaZulu-Natal, who draws tens of thousands of people to his spiritual revival rallies a Sudanese woman being arrested for wearing long trousers in public and, hence, contraven- ing the country’s Islamic laws for public decency – if found guilty, she could face 40 lashes and an unlimited fine for unseemly behaviour a Muslim model from northern Malaysia declaring that she was prepared to take her punish- ment (six lashes with a cane) in public for drinking a beer, so that other Muslims can learn from her example the claim that the spread of HIV/AIDS is due to “cultural practices, customs and traditions”, rather than structural adjustments, and so forth. Given that anthropology is characterised by this curiosity about people and attempts to “make sense” of human behaviour, the questions raised by these issues are among those that anthro- pologists seek to answer. “Anthropology is an intellectually challenging, theoretically ambitious subject which tries to achieve an understanding of culture, society and humanity through detailed studies of local life, supplemented by comparison” (Eriksen 2004:7). The basic question which anthropology has always tried to answer is: How can we explain the uniformity and diversity of humans and human behaviour – that is, the human experience? Why do communities and societies have different or similar ways of adapting to their environ- ment, organising their relations, structuring their leadership and governance systems, appeasing their supernatural or supreme being(s) in the spiritual realm, expressing themselves artistically? What makes us human? Why do people differ physically and biologically? What traits do we have in common? Why do people have different patterns of behaviour? Anthropology brings fundamental insights in the human condition, and helps making sense of the contemporary world. Anthropology produces information, knowledge and understanding of what makes people different and what makes them similar, and looks at what all human be- ings have in common. The term anthropology comes from the Greek anthropos for “man/human” and logos for “study”. Anthropology brings fundamental insights in the human condition, and helps making sense of the contemporary world. The discipline sets out to develop a better understanding of diverse societies in different contexts by spending time with people in their particular settings. They take themselves out of their comfort zone to experience other people and their activities in an unfamiliar context. This form of direct contact with people, in their “world”, to learn more about them, has been termed “fieldwork”. This “field” involves a great diversity of settings. For example: a rural village community in KwaZulu-Natal; a cement factory in Maputo; a San/Bushmen settlement in the Kalahari Desert; a pottery-making clan in Limpopo; the Tsigane “Gypsies” in APY1501/13 LEARNING THEME 1 the Sion valley of Switzerland, etcetera. It could be a complex urban neighbourhood, a medical facility or psychiatric ward, an international corporation or organisation, anywhere in the world. PEN AND PAPER ACTIVITY 1.1A Self-reflective exercise Are you a people-person, do you like people and get on well with them? Are you curious about why people behave the way they do? Can you deal with people who behave differently and have different beliefs, on their own terms? Would you be comfortable visiting unfamiliar places, meeting strangers, participating in unaccustomed activities and eating different foods? Would you like to do something that makes a difference in peoples’ lives? Would you like to obtain the kind of training and skills that provide a wide range of occupational and career options? If you responded positively to most questions, then anthropology will certainly interest you. ONLINE ACTIVITY 1.1B Interest & expectations On the myUnisa portal, you will find an online learning system where smaller groups of students electronically network with a dedicated subject specialist – referred to as an e-tutor. After reading up about this course and introducing yourself in the Discussions tool in your Anthropology group site (named: APY1501---), share: Why did you choose this module as one of your subjects? and What do you expect to learn from this subject? To access the Discussions tool: (1) Type https://my.unisa.ac.za/portal in your internet browser. (2) Login by entering your student number and password in the top right hand corner. (3) It will open on a home page called My Workspace – a special site that is private to you. (4) All subjects in which you have e-tutor support are displayed as tabs across the top. If you have many subject sites, some may be listed under “More Sites” in a drop down list. (5) Click the tab to open the home page of subject you want. (6) The left-hand navigation menu lists all the tools available in this site. Each tool has a dif- ferent function. Drag your mouse over a tool to find a short description of the tool. 4