Exam 2 Review - Biology PDF

REVIEW FOR THE EXAM: What organism has a cell membrane: Eukaryotic cells have a cell membrane. What organism has a cell wall: Plants, algae and fungi, bacteria. What are the cellular structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? - Prokaryotic: prokaryotic cells don’t have a nucleus. Instead...

REVIEW FOR THE EXAM: What organism has a cell membrane: Eukaryotic cells have a cell membrane. What organism has a cell wall: Plants, algae and fungi, bacteria. What are the cellular structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? - Prokaryotic: prokaryotic cells don’t have a nucleus. Instead of the nucleus they have a nucleoid and cell wall composed of peptidoglycan. They don’t have bound-cell organelles. They reproduce by themselves. They have a capsule, slime layer, flagella and cilia. They are unicellular. —> Nucleoid, ribosomes, cell wall, cell membrane - Eukaryotic cells: have bound cell organelles, nucleus, structures, multicellular and unicellular, etc. What do this structures do: - Glycocalyx: outer protection, attachment, protection from outer environment, adhesion and protection from the danger of phagocytosis. It is made of glycolipids, glycoproteins, and exopolysaccharides. - Slime layer: No shape, loosely attached, and protects bacteria from the environment. - Capsule: Protects cells from phagocytosis, 360 rotation, movement and adhesion.---> Good shape, tightly attached. - flagella: long, sheathed cylinder containing microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement. The eukaryotic flagella is 10X thicker than prokaryotic flagella. - Cilia: smaller than flagella and more numerous. It functions for motility, feeding and filtering. It is found ONLY on a single group of protozoa and certain animal cells. What do this do: lysosome, algae, mitochondria, chloroplast, nucleus, ER, golgi, ribosomes: - Algae: algae are photosynthetic, have chlorophyll, have a cell wall, have tissue. Can reproduce both sexually and asexually. - Lysosome: Function for intracellular digestion, contains enzymes from golgi apparatus.  - Mitochondria: ATP house, has cristae which are the folds of inner and outer membrane. - Chloroplast: They are in charge of photosynthesis. They convert sunlight energy into chemical energy. —>energy of plant cells and algae! - Nucleus: most prominent organelle, genetic information is here, has ribosomes. - ER: there are two types. RER and SER. The rough one is in charge of protein production and synthesis, while the smooth one is in charge of lipid storage. - Golgi apparatus: modifies, transforms and matures proteins. It is made of flattened sacs called cisternae. What does it mean to be dimorphic? Microorganisms can exist in two different forms. For example: Microscopic fungi can have two morphologies being hypha- long filamentous or yeast-round and oval shape. What does it mean to be polymorphic: The ability of microorganisms to exist in multiple (more than two) forms during stages of life. - For example: bacteria can change shape. What are the characteristics of fungi? Fungi can be unicellular and also multicellular, have nucleus and organelle bounds, have a rigid cell wall with a thick inner layer and a thin outer layer. There are two types of fungi. Fungi are heterotrophs, some are parasites but not obligate. - Mycoses: fungal infection 1) Yeasts: round and circular and reproduce through asexual reproduction. It has a cell wall but LACKS locomotor organelles (cilia and flagella). It grows swellings on its surface called buds which become separate cells. —> Some yeasts form a pseudohyphae: is a chain of yeasts formed when buds remain attached in a row. They are not real hyphae. 2) Hyphae: long and filamentous that make up the bodies of filamentous fungi and hold spores. Due to spores they can change color. Hyphae has two types: - Vegetative hyphae: digests and absorbs nutrients - Reproductive hyphae: produces spores and reproduction. - Septa: cross walls that divide hyphae FUNGI REPRODUCE PRIMARILY THROUGH SPORES FORMED ON REPRODUCTIVE HYPHAE. Asexual reproduction: - Conidiospores: free-living organisms not enclosed. - Sporangiospore: rupture sporangium head and are released. Sexual reproduction: Fusion of two different trains and formation of new structure. - Ascospores - Zygospores - Basidiospores Kingdoms and classification: - Phylum zygomycota: zygospores mostly sporangiospores (asexual) and some conidia (asexual). - Phylum Ascomycota: ascospores (sexual), and conidia (asexual) - Phylum Basidiomycota: basidiospores(sexual) and conidia (asexual) - Phylum Chytridiomycota: Flagellated spores. What are imperfect spores: Those who only reproduce asexually. Name the two types of fungi: macroscopic and microscopic: - Macroscopic: mushrooms, puffballs, and gill fungi - Microscopic: Hyphae and yeast What are the characteristics of bacteria? Bacteria are prokaryotic, no nucleus or cell organelles, produce by themselves, and adapt to different environments. What is a heterotroph, autotroph, phototrophic? - Heterotroph: gets their nutrients from other organisms, especially organic nutrients. - Autotrophs: Uses carbon dioxide as carbon and don’t depend on other organisms - Phototrophs: get their energy source from photosynthesis. Which microorganisms are hetero and autotrophs? - Heterotroph: fungi, protozoa, helminths - Autotroph: Algae and plants What are the parts of a fungal cell? Fungi have a thick and rigid cell wall. Thick inner layer and thin outer layer primarily composed of chitin. They have a nucleus, bound-cell organelles and can be either unicellular or multicellular. Which microorganisms undergo photosynthesis? Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.  What are the parts of a virus? Noncellular obligate intracellular parasites, have either DNA or RNA but never both, covered by a capsid (all viruses have a capsid) and protein. Some viruses have a nucleus but not all of them. How are fungi similar to plants? Fungi and plants are both heterotrophs, and have rigid cell walls. Also both of them have chloroplasts and live in similar environments. How is a protein manufactures in a cell: (where does it start, goes here, goes there): 1) Nucleolus sends ribosomes to the ER 2) ER has proteins which combine with the ribosomes and are taken to the Golgi apparatus through transport vesicles 3) Golgi apparatus storages, transforms and matures proteins and gets them ready 4) Condensing vesicles take the proteins getting them ready for exocytosis 5) excretory vesicles bring the proteins out. What are the characteristics of a virus? Viruses are noncellular intracellular and obligate parasites that need a host in order to replicate. They can’t do anything by themselves and they are smaller than bacteria. They can leave the cell through exocytosis or budding where they come out of the host through a slow and progressive rupture, or they can come out through Cell lysis by rupturing and killing the cell. All viruses have a capsid for protection and attachment and some viruses have an envelope that protects them from the external world when they come out of the cell. What is in a virus and what does the word “replication” mean? To continue the chain of infection, a virus must undergo the process of replication to create new infectious virions that are able to infect other cells of the body or subsequent hosts. What can viruses infect? Respiratory system, liver, digestive tract, skin, brain and blood. ←—- - Acronym: Respiratory system - Lives - Daily - So - Bring - Blood. What are the parts of a virus? DNA or RNA, protein, capsid, some viruses have an envelope, intracellular parasites that need a host. What are viruses, how would you grow them. How do you see them, what are they made of, how do they reproduce? What are the steps in viral multiplication? Absorption, penetration, uncoating, synthesis, assembly, release.  Acronym: Animal - Planet - Uncoats - Sea - Animals - Rapidly. 1) Absorption: virus attaches to host 2) Penetration: the genome enters the host cell in two ways. - Fusion: Viral envelope fuses directly with the host membrane - Endocytosis: the virus is engulfed and enclosed in a vacuole or vesicle and once inside is released. 3) Uncoating: The viral nucleic acid is released from the capsid. 4) Synthesis: viral components are produced. - Positive sense RNA: can assemble right away since it contains translation. -negative sense RNA: must be converted into positive message before translation occurs. 5) Assembly: new viral particles are constructed. 6) Release: the virus leaves the cell through budding/exocytosis or Cell lysis. If you want to grow a virus in a lab, what can you use to grow a virus in a lab? (what all the different things you can use to grow a virus)? 1) Cell tissue cultures: (part of Vitrio) - Cultured cells support viral replication and permit the observation of cytopathic effects. 2) Bird embryos: Intact and self-supporting unit, complete with its own sterile environment and nourishment. With embryonic tissue that supports multiplication. 3) Live animal inoculation: The animal is exposed by injection of a viral replication or specimen into the brain, blood, muscle, body cavity, skin or footpads. What is an oncogenic virus? Viruses that can produce cancer. For example papillomavirus. What is a capnophile? Anaerobic bacteria grow best at higher carbon dioxide tensions than normal. ‘ Polymerases: DNA or RNA synthesis  Replicases: Copy RNA Reverse transcriptase: Getting DNA from RNA. What is a latent virus? Viruses that are part of latent/persistent infections. This means that they can come back again even if they leave. They can stay in the host for a long period of time or even forever, for example herpes but without causing a lot of harm. Latent in conclusion is when they can come back like Herpes can reactivate. What is a Prion? Misfolded proteins contain no nucleic acid. Extremely resistant to usual sterilization techniques causing transmissible spongiform encephalopathies and fatal neurodegenerative disease. What is a viroid? Short pieces of RNA, no protein coat, and have only been identified in plants. Evolution of viruses (know info about it): 2 billions years ago, evidence suggests that they gave existence to bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Know information about protozoa: Protozoa are unicellular, lack a cell wall and tissue but it has cilia, flagella and locomotor structures. They are not photosynthetic and don’t have chlorophyll as a pigment. Protozoa can reproduce asexually through binary fission, or sexually through conjugation. What came first: hosts, cells, or viruses through evolution on the planet: - virus—> host—-> Cell What does it mean to be an obligate intracellular parasite? It means that it needs a host to replicate. It can’t do anything by itself. What is a contaminant? The unintentional introduction of microbial agents such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites. What are the major ways in getting away from microorganisms? Sterilization, disinfection, (all of those): - Sterilization: the complete removal and destruction of all viable microorganisms and spores.--> It is used on inanimate objects. - Ex: Autoclaving, ionizing radiation.  - Disinfection: The destruction or removal of vegetative pathogens but not bacteria endospores.---> Used ONLY on inanimate objects. - Ex: Boiling water and bleach - Antisepsis: chemicals applied to body surfaces, wounds, and surgical incisions to destroy or inhibit vegetative pathogens. - Ex: antibacterial soap, iodophors) - Sanitation: Any cleansing technique that removes microorganisms (Spores remain) from inanimate surfaces to reduce the potential for infections and spoilage. - What kind of chemical will cause sterility? High-level germicides What are the physical agents used to control microorganisms and some of the physical ways (ultraviolet, plates, labs stuff): Physical things: Heat Moist Radiation Filtration Chemical agents Liquids Chemical things: Halogens including chlorine Fluorine and iodine Alcohol Phenols How do you Endospores? - With High-level germicides: Kills endospores and may be sterilants. - Sterilization and dry-heat autoclaves at high temperature What is filtration, pasteurization, dry heat, moist heat, chloronization, boiling? - Filtration: Physical removal of microbes by passing a gas or liquid through a filter. Pasteurization: Heat is applied to kill potential agents of infection and spoilage without destroying the food flavor or value.  - Dry heat: Moderate to high temperatures: dehydration, alters protein structure. - Ex: incineration and dry oven. - Moist heat: Lower temperatures and shorter exposure time; coagulation and denaturation of proteins which halts cellular metabolism. - Boiling: Boiling water at 100C for 30 minutes to destroy non-spore forming pathogens. What do you use alcohol for?, how do they work? - Alcohol denatures proteins and disrupts cell membranes in microorganisms. This damages their structure and function ultimately leading to cell death. - Alcohols are effective against a wide range of bacteria and viruses , making them common disinfectants and antiseptic in microbiology and healthcare settings What did they do? Florey and chain: Purified, tested in 8 mice, and produced large quantities of Penicillin. They confirmed Fleming’s finding. Fleming: He discovered Penicillin Enrich: He was the founder of Chemotherapy and salvarsan Domagk: He discovered the first sulfa drug/sulfonamide. The first type of antibiotics Koch: Tuberculosis - Tubercle bacillus Who discovered Salvarsan and what was it used for?, how and when? The first effective antibiotic drug cure for syphilis discovered by Enhrilick and Pr. Sahachiro Hata in 1910. What is an antibiotic? Substances produced by natural metabolic processes of some microorganisms that can inhibit or destroy other microorganisms. What is a broad-spectrum drug and narrow spectrum drug? - Broad-spectrum: Microbials effective against a wide variety of microbial types. - Ex: drugs effective against a wide variety of microbial types, for example against gram positive or gram-negative bacteria. - Narrow-spectrum: Antimicrobial effects against a limited array of microbial types. - Ex: drug that works on gram-positive bacteria. Antiseptic drug: a chemical agent that slows or stops the growth of microorganisms on external surfaces of the body and helps prevent infections.  What are semisynthetic drugs: drugs that are chemically modified in the laboratory after being isolated from natural sources. Synthetic drug? Antimicrobial compounds synthetized entirely in the laboratory through chemical reactions. What are the characteristics of an ideal therapeutic agent or microbial agent? Which microorganisms make antibiotics? Streptomyces, bacillus, penicillium, cephalosporium, actinomycetes. What is a superinfection? The infection of a previously infected cell. (Secondary infection) How do you get a super infection? 5% of all people taking antimicrobials will experience a serious adverse reaction to the drug. When a second bacterial organism is isolated while an animal is receiving antimicrobial therapy. Penicillin and how does it work, what does it damage? - Penicillin causes: cell wall damage and lysis. It blocks synthesis of peptidoglycan causing the cell wall to lyse.-->Penicillin is the drug of choice for gram-positive cocci and some gram-negative bacteria. - Penicillin treats: throat infections, meningitis and syphilis. - side effects: are allergies and resistant strains of bacteria. What do Cephalosporins do? - Cephalosporin damages: the cell wall and causes lysis. Both synthesis of peptidoglycan cousin the cell wall to lyse. - The side effects: inhibition of prothrombin, synthesis, decreased circulation, and nephritis. - It treats: Gonorrhea, soft tissue infections, UTIs, and skin infections. What does Gentamicin do?  - Gentamicin damages: Inhibits protein synthesis binding to one ribosomal subunit. IT IS LESS TOXIC and used against aerobic-gram negative rods. - Gentamicin treats: UTIs, GI tract infections, Chest infections, and E.coli - Side effects: Diarrhea and enterocolitis, loss of hearing, dizziness, and kidney damage. What does Clavamox do? - Clavamox damages: inhibition of cell wall synthesis by attachment to penicillin binding proteins. - Clavamox treats: skin infections, soft tissue infections, and periodontal infections. - Side effects: Diarrhea, vomiting, and allergies. What does vancomycin do? - Vancomycin damages: the cell call causing lysis. - What is special about vancomycin: it is a non beta-lactam cell wall inhibitor and a narrow spectrum antibiotic. It is also toxic and hard to administer because it has restricted use. - When would you use it: when the strain is penicillin and methicillin resistance, or if the patient is allergic to penicillin. - What does it treat: it is the most effective treatment of Staphylococcal infections. What does ciprofloxacin do? - It damages: and disrupts bacteria’s ability to replicate DNA by hiding and inhibiting DNA gyrase enzymes. - It is used: against Gram negative bacteria and to treat UTIs, lower respiratory tract infections, gonorrhea, and joint/bone infections. - The side effects: nausea, diarrhea, racing heart, lightheadedness, and chest pain.  What does bacitracin do? - Bacitracin damages: cell wall and causes lysis - It is found: in the narrow spectrum group of drugs and is used topically in ointment. What does clindamycin do? - It damages: disrupts protein synthesis by interfering with the transpeptidation reaction and binding to the 50 ribosomal subunits of bacteria. - It treats: anaerobic streptococcal and staphylococcal infections. - Side effects: diarrhea, chest pain, and dark urine/stool What does chloramphenicol do? - It damages: blocks peptide bond formation and protein synthesis. It is very toxic, has restricted use and can cause irreversible damage to bone marrow. - It treats: Superficial eye infections such as bacterial conjunctivitis and otitis externa. - Side effects: thyroid fever, brain abscesses, rickettsial and chlamydial infections. What drug would you use for an anaerobe in the intestines? Metronidazole Which drug would you use to treat an anaerobic infection of your intestines? This drug kills bad things but also kills good things and can be beneficial but also bad? Metronidazole. Metronidazole and its importance: effective for the management of anaerobic infections such as intra-abdominal infections. Which antiviral drug targets___ What are some of the reasons we have drug resistance problems? - Due to prior mutations or transfer of plasmids. - Sensitive cells are inhibited or destroyed, while resistant cells will survive.  - Eventually the population will be resistant. When do you use tamiflu and relenza and how do they work? 1) Tamiflu: It contains drug oseltamivir and is an oral pill. It is used to treat influenza A & B. It blocks neuraminidase that’s required for final budding and release of new virus.--> It DOES NOT block early influenza cycles. - Side effects: Anaphylaxis, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting 2) Relenza: Contains zanamivir and is an inhaler. It is used to treat both Influenza A & B, blocks neuraminidase that is required for final budding and release of new viruses. It does not block ealy influenza cycles. - Side effects: anaphylaxis, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. What are the elements that you find in microorganisms? (oxygen, carbon, those things) - Carbon - Hydrogen - Oxygen - Phosphorus - Nitrogen - Sulfur Heterotroph, autotroph, phototroph, chemotroph: - Heterotrophs: gets their nutrients from other organic organisms - Autotrophs: uses carbon dioxide as its carbon source and doesn’t depend on any other organism - Phototroph: gets its energy through photosynthesis What is a Facultative: The most adaptable organism that can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen. What is a thermophile, mesophile, psychrophile—> Define them: - Psychrophile: Optimum temperature below 15C. - capable of growth at 0 C. - Mesophiles: Optimum temperature 20 to 40 C. Most human pathogens. - Thermophiles: Optimum temperature greater than 45 C. What is an aerobe, anaerobe, what is a halophile: - Aerobe: Utilizes oxygen and can detoxify it. There are three types:  1) Obligate aerobe: needs oxygen to grow 2) Facultative aerobe: utilizes oxygen but can also survive without it. 3) Microaerophile: required only small amounts of oxygen. - Anaerobe: Can’t survive with the presence of oxygen and needs anaerobic environments. 1) Obligate anaerobe: Cannot survive in an oxygenated environment 2) Aerotolerant anaerobe: Do not utilize oxygen but can survive and grow in its presence. - Halophiles: Extremophiles that require a big concentration of salt. What is an extremophile: An organism that thrives in extreme conditions. What is the difference between a thermophile and an extremophile? - Thermophile Its optimum temperature is greater than 45C - Extremophile: extremophiles that thrive in extreme conditions. What kind of microorganism would infect you? Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and helminths What is a microaerophile? Microorganisms that only require a small amount of oxygen. Where do you find a barophile, psychrophile? Barophiles: Can survive under extreme pressure and will rupture if exposed to normal atmospheric pressure.---> DEEP UNDER WATER. Psychrophile: Optimum temperature below 15C. Capable of growth at 0 C. Define Chlorination: the process of adding chlorine to drinking water to kill parasites, bacteria, and viruses What is a commensal, mutualism, parasitism: - Commensal: only the commensal gets benefits but doesn't harm or benefit the other one. - Mutualism: both parties benefit - Parasitism: only the parasite benefits harming the host. -  What is a parasite: an obligate intracellular parasite that harms a host and replicates until it parasitizes and affects the host and other areas. What is a saprobe: free-living microorganisms that feed on organic detritus from dead organisms. What is happening at lag, log, stat, and death phase: - Lag phase: “flat” period of adjustment, enlargement, and little growth. - Log phase: known as exponential growth phase - A period of maximum growth when cells have adequate nutrients and a favorable environment. - Stationary phase: Rate of cell growth equals rate of cell death caused by depleted nutrients and oxygen. Excretion of organic acids and pollutants. - Death phase: As limiting factors intensify, cells die exponentially. Which of these would have a negative growth? Death phase