ES MODULE 1 THE UNIVERSE PDF

Module 1: The Universe  Lesson 1: The Origin of the Universe  Universe Base on the Oxford Language universe is everything that exists like matter and space and is considered one called cosmos. The universe is at least 10 billion lightyears in diameter and contains a huge...

Module 1: The Universe  Lesson 1: The Origin of the Universe  Universe Base on the Oxford Language universe is everything that exists like matter and space and is considered one called cosmos. The universe is at least 10 billion lightyears in diameter and contains a huge number of galaxies; it has been expanding since the beginning of the Big Bang about 13 billion years ago. The universe began with a huge explosion called the Big Bang.  The Big Bang Theory Big Bang states that the universe started as a single point, expanded and then stretched and continuously expanding as big as the universe today. In 1927, George Lemaitre, an astronomer says that a long time ago, the universe started with just a single point. He said the universe stretched and expanded to get as big as it is now, and that it could keep on stretching. It was hot as the universe began, Small particles are mixed with light and energy. As the universe expands it took up more space and cooled down. The small particles form into groups and they formed the atom, and those atom created groups together and for a long period, they form galaxies and stars. When the stars die, other elements are formed and they are the heavier elements. Evidences of The Big Bang Theory  Red Shifting The redshift happens when the galaxy is far away. As the galaxy moves away from the observer, the observer can see the galaxy changes its color to red. This event happens because the red color in the spectrum of light is having the longest wavelength. This can also happen when the object is moving towards the observer and the color can be seen as blue because blue has the shortest wavelength. Microwave Background As the universe expanded, the heat is left behind and a glow fills the entire universe. This glow should exist based on the Big Bang and should be visible as the microwaves which are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Stars A star is mostly made up of hydrogen and helium. Stars can be seen in the sky in daylight and also at night. Stars can be known as the building block of a galaxy since there are so many stars in a galaxy. Classification of Stars  Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram One of the most important tools that are used in studying stars is the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. It is developed in the early 1900s by Ejnar Hertszprung and Henry Norris Russell where the diagram plots the temperature of the stars against their luminosity.  Galaxy A galaxy is consisting of a group of stars and galaxies. Between groups of galaxies and stars are space. Classification of Galaxies Elliptical Galaxy stars are arranged in a spherical or elliptical shape. It does not have extended curved arms. Normal Spiral Galaxy It is consisting of two or more regions. At the center of this galaxy is its nucleus where a large number of stars are located. Barred Spiral Galaxy Two broad expansions (“bars”) extend out from the opposite side of the nuclear bulge before the arms start to curve from the outer boundaries of the bars. Irregular Galaxy a galaxy with no specific shape.  Constellation A constellation is a group of stars that forms certain patterns in the sky. It is used by the ancient people for direction and also to tell the time of the year. 88 total constellations can be seen in the sky.  Types of Constellation Circumpolar Constellation The circumpolar constellation is derived from constellations and stars that are circulating at the poles of the Earth. Circumpolar constellations can be found near the celestial poles and due to their proximity to the poles, they never disappear from view. Circumpolar Constellation The five northern constellations visible from most locations north of the equator throughout the year are Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Draco, Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor. Seasonal Constellation Refers to the constellations that can be seen in the sky in certain seasons. They can be best observe around 9 pm in the evening.  Seasonal Constellation These are the constellations that can be seen in a particular season: Winter: Canis Major, Cetus Eridanus, Gemini, Orion, Perseus, and Taurus. Spring: Bootes, Cancer, Crater, Hydra, Leo, and Virgo. Summer, Aquila, Cygnus, Hercules, Lyra, Ophiuchus, Sagittarius and Scorpius light up the sky. Fall, Andromeda, Aquarius, Capricornus, Pegasus, and Pisces. Lesson 2: Origin of the Solar System  The Nebular Hypothesis This theory states that our solar system began as a giant cloud of molecular gas and dust. Then, about 4.57 billion years ago, something happened that caused the cloud to collapse. This could have been the result of a passing star, or shock waves from a supernova, but the end result was a gravitational collapse at the center of the cloud.  The Sun Our sun is classified as a star. It is a self-luminous sphere of gases powered by nuclear reaction and held together by the force of gravity. Sun is the nearest star to the Earth, with its enormous size its diameter is approximately 100 times than Earth's diameter. The Sun  Corona The sun’s outermost part of its atmosphere and is usually hidden because of the bright light of the sun. It makes the corona hard to see without the use of a special instrument, but during the total solar eclipse, the corona can be seen.  Chromosphere Next to Corona is the Chromosphere which is the second most outer layer of the Sun which is a thousand kilometers thick, it is located above the photosphere and under the corona. Because of its low density, it is transparent, resulting in the photosphere being observed as the visual surface of the Sun.  Photosphere The lowest layer of the solar atmosphere is the photosphere. It is basically the solar "surface" that we see when we look at the Sun in "white” light. When we see sunspots and faculae (bright little cloud-like features) we are observing them in the photosphere.  Sun Spot Temporary phenomena that appear on the sun’s photosphere as dark spots. They are regions of reduced surface temperature caused by concentrations of magnetic field flux that inhibit convection. Sunspots usually appear in pairs of opposite magnetic polarities.  Flares An intense burst of radiation coming from the release of magnetic energy secondary to sunspots. They can be seen as bright areas on the sun and they can last from minutes to hours.  Prominence A large, bright, gaseous feature extending outward from the Sun's surface, often in a hoop shape. Prominences are attached to the Sun's exterior in the photosphere and extend outwards into the solar corona.  Planets A planet is known as a celestial object that orbits around the sun. The IAU (International Astronomical Union) decides that planets and other bodies, except satellites, in our Solar System be defined into three categories in the following way: A planet is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.  Planets A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite. All other objects, except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies".  Planets Here are some characteristics of a planet: It must orbit a star. It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape. It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit around the Sun.  Terrestrial Planets There are four inner planets of the solar system. They are relatively small in size and mass (Earth is the largest and most massive) has a rocky surface. The craters on planets are commonly seen throughout the solar system. On the other hand, Jovian planets don’t have surface because it doesn’t have a solid surface.  Mercury Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. It has the shortest period of revolution (88 days), and is the fastest moving. It was named by the early Greeks after the swift messenger of the gods. Due to its small size and closeness to the Sun, Mercury has almost no atmosphere. It has a density close to that of Earth.  Venus Venus is the closest planet to Earth, it is the third brightest object in the sky. Because of its brightness, it was named after Venus, the goddess of Beauty. The surface of Venus cannot be seen from Earth, due to dense, thick clouds that cover the planet. The atmosphere of Venus is composed of 96% CO2, it is so dense that its surface has a pressure of 90 atm.  Mars Mars has a red color, as viewed from the Earth, and was named for the Roman god of war. The surface of Mars has two outstanding features that have intrigued scientists for decades: polar ice caps and extinct volcanoes. The ice caps are composed of frozen CO2 in the winter and CO2 vapor with frozen water in the summer. The red color is thought to be due to fine-grain iron oxide minerals.  Jovian Planets Jovian planets are larger in mass and size than terrestrial planets. They also have a much lower average density. All of them have rings and are mostly gas, have no solid surface.  Jupiter The largest planet of the solar system, in both volume and total mass. It is named after the supreme Roman god of heaven because of its brightness and giant size. The diameter of Jupiter is 11 times Earth’s – 318 times more mass than Earth. The average density of Jupiter approximately 1.3 g/cm3. Jupiter is covered with a thin layer of clouds composed of hydrogen, helium, methane, ammonia, and several other substances.  Saturn Saturn has a distinctive system of three prominent rings. Its rings are inclined 27° to the orbital plane. The rings are thought to be composed of ice and ice-coated rocks (micrometers à 10 m). It is the most outstanding sight that can be viewed from Earth with a small telescope. The diameter of Jupiter is 9 times Earth’s – 95 times more mass than Earth. The average density of only 0.7 g/cm3.  Uranus Uranus was named after the father of the Titans and the grandfather of Jupiter. It was discovered in 1781 by William Herschel, an English Astronomer. There is a thin ring system composed of boulder-sized particles (>1 m), with very little dust size that can be observed in Uranus and its average density of only 1.3 g/cm3.  Neptune Neptune is the most distant planet from the Sun and is the smallest gas giant. A year on Neptune lasts 165 Earth years. It is named after the Roman god of the sea and it also has 6 faint rings.  Dwarf Planets Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that are planet-like but are incomplete for the criteria of being planet set by the International Astronomical Union.  Ceres Located at the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. It is discovered in 1801 by Italian Giuseppe Piazzi and named after the Roman goddess of agriculture. Ceres has a diameter of only 940 km and is the smallest dwarf planet.  Pluto Pluto is a dwarf planet that is located at the Kuiper Belt. It is an area full of icy bodies and other dwarf planets out past Neptune. Pluto is only about half the width of the United States and its biggest moon Charon is about half the size of Pluto. Planetary Motions Johannes Kepler (1571- 1630) An intern of Tycho Brahe. He used Tycho’s data to come up with his own heliocentric model of the universe. He developed three planetary motion. Law of Ellipses It explains that the orbits of planets are in ellipses with the sun at one focus. This explains that the sun is not at the center and planets do not move in uniform circular motion. Law of Equal Areas The line joining the planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This shows that a planet move quickly when it is closer to the sun slowly when it is farther away. Law of Harmonies The squares of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their average distance from the sun, T2 α d3 this suggests that the period for a planet to orbit the sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Newton’s Law of Motion Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) Made an efficient study of motion and expanded the ideas of Galileo by formulating the three laws of motion.  Law of Inertia States that an object remains at rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by an external unbalanced force.  Law of Interaction States that, when one object exerts a force on another, second object exerts an equal but opposite force on the first. Law of Universal Gravitation States that every object in the universe is attracted to another object with force that is directly proportional to the product of the mass of each object and inversely proportional to the product of the mass of each object and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centers of their masses. Other Celestial Objects in our Solar System  Comets Most of the comets are located at the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. They are cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust that orbit the Sun. They are the size of a small town when frozen. When a comet's orbit brings it close to the Sun, it heats up and spews dust and gases into a giant glowing head larger than most planets. A single comet has four parts: nucleus, coma, dust tail and the ion tail.  Comets Nucleus- the solid part of the comet which is mostly a mixture of ice fragments, rocky dust, and some intricate chemicals. Coma- It surrounds the nucleus as a halo or atmosphere of evaporated gas such as carbon dioxide, ammonia, and water vapor. It is larger than the nucleus it surrounds. Ion Tail- Also known as Plasma tail. Contains electrically charged gas molecules that are pushed away from the nucleus by the solar wind. Dust Tail-Consist of dust particles which evaporate from nucleus.  Comets Comets can have tails that are nearly four times the distance between the earth and the sun An example of comet, the Halley's comet which is visible from the earth every 76 years. We can see again the comet in the year 2062.  Meteors Sometimes called shooting stars. They are pieces of meteoroids that fall from space causes flash of light upon entering Earth’s atmosphere rapidly. Some of the particles that make meteors burn up before reaching the ground. If not completely burned, then the particles like a pea or grain of sand is a meteorite.  Meteorites Often covered with dark and rough crust that results from its burning enter in the Earth’s atmosphere.  Primitive Meteorite Mixtures of rocks and metals believed to be essentially unchanged from the beginning of the solar system 4.54 billion years old. They are mostly carbon and water containing compounds.  Asteroids Most of the Asteroids are located between Mars and Jupiter. They are described as small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun that is much smaller to a planet. Lesson 3: The Earth  The Earth The Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and is a solid, spherical, rocky body with oceans and an atmosphere. Large amounts of surface water in all three phases – solid, liquid, and gas – exist on Earth. Composition of the Earth is Atmosphere – 21% oxygen; Earth’s crust – over 90%, by volume, of the rocks/minerals are oxygen. The shape of the Earth is Oblate Spheroid, its poles are flattened and has bulging at its equator.  Motions of the Earth The Earth has different motions such as rotation and revolution. The Earth rotates on its axis causing day and night. Revolution on the other had is the movement of Earth around the Sun. One complete revolution is equal to 1 year. Since the orbital of the planets are ellipses, Earth sometimes come near the Sun. This phenomenon is called Aphelion and Perihelion if the Earth is far away from the Sun.  Seasons of the Earth There are different seasons on Earth: Winter, spring, summer and fall. There are three factors affecting the seasons: first is the revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Second is the tilt of the Earth’s axis of rotation respects to the Plane of the Ecliptic. Today, the Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun.  Magnetic Field of the Earth Magnetic Field of the Earth exists within the Earth and extends many hundreds of miles into space. The aurora borealis (northern lights) and aurora australis (southern lights) are associated with the Earth’s magnetic field. It is thought that certain animals such as birds use magnetic field for navigation. Similar to the pattern from a giant bar magnet being present within the Earth.  The Earth’s Moon The Moon is an astronomical body orbiting Earth and is the planet's only natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest satellite in the Solar System, and by far the largest among planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits.  Phases of the Moon The lunar phase or Moon phase is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Moon as viewed from Earth. The lunar phases gradually change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days), as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun shift. Eclipses  Solar Eclipse Happens when the moon is between sun and the Earth having alignment on the same plane. The moon cast a shadow on the Earth causing the sun to go dark.  Lunar Ecilpse Happens when the Earth is between the sun and the moon having the alignment on the same plane. The earth cast a shadow on the moon causing the moon to go dark. Penumbra and umbra are also present during this eclipse. Earth’s System  Earth’s System The term system as a set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole. The Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun and returns some of this energy to space.  Atmosphere The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere. The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.  Lithosphere The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.  Plate Tectonics Plate tectonics is an important process shaping the surface of the Earth. The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.  Hydrosphere About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean water. Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.  Hydrosphere The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering of rocks. Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.  Biosphere The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea. For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic organisms.  Biosphere During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle. Sunlight is not necessary for life. Thank You