EPS 212 SPECIAL EDUCATION FINAL UPDATE.docx

**UNIT ONE** **INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION** We are all different. It is what makes us unique and interesting humans. Some differences are obvious, such as our height, the colour of our skin, or the size of our nose. Other features are not so readily discernible, such as our reading ability...

**UNIT ONE** **INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL EDUCATION** We are all different. It is what makes us unique and interesting humans. Some differences are obvious, such as our height, the colour of our skin, or the size of our nose. Other features are not so readily discernible, such as our reading ability or understanding of mathematical concepts. However, in the school system, greater emphasis has been placed on "being normal and having average intelligence". Individuals who deviate in this sense either positively or negatively and do not fall in the "normal/regular category" are termed as being special/exceptional and needing a form of special attention in the teaching and learning process. These special/exceptional individuals may have a form of disability making it difficult to learn through the "normal" means or they may not have a form of disability but may have a unique learning need such that the normal school system will have to be altered before it can help them. In simple terms, the education formulated for individuals with unique learning needs and/or disabilities cconstitute special education. **What is Special Education?** Special education is a form of education that caters for individuals whose educational, social, emotional, physical and other needs cannot be met through the ordinary or average ways of teaching/learning in the regular schools. It requires an alteration or adaptation of the regular school programme in terms of the methods, personnel, materials, curriculum or even the environment. Hence, it involves individually planned and systematically implemented teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, accessible settings and other interventions designed to help learners with special educational needs and disabilities achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school (Wilmshurt & Brue, 2010).For example, if a learner in your class has a reading difficulty even though he/she has been taught many times, and you assist him/her individually, using specially designed strategies to overcome or manage the difficulty, you are in a way, applying special education. The reason is that since the ordinary reading strategies is not helpful to the individual, you are using specially designed instruction to help him/her. The specially designed instruction includes special methods and teaching/learning materials. Additionally, it involves instructional and learning environments which may include specific and appropriately trained teachers for each group of exceptional individuals. It also focuses on appropriate placement of the individual in the educational system. Thus, special education is concerned with individuals (with disabilities and those without disabilities) who cannot learn through the ordinary method or would need some sort of modification to be able to learn effectively. These individuals are termed as special needs individuals because of their unique learning needs. They may include those unable to learn, underachieving, those from war-torn countries or disaster-stricken areas, individuals who are sexually abused such as rape victims, street children, children of nomads (Fulani), head porters (kayayie) among others. **Definitions of Special Education** *Kirk and Gallagher (1994)* see special education as those additional services over and above the regular school programme that are provided for exceptional individuals to assist in the development of their potentialities or the amelioration of their disabilities. These additional services include special equipment such as Braille machines for the blind, hearing aid for the deaf, instruction in sign language for the deaf and special devices for the physically challenged. *Hallahan and Kauffman (1986)* define it as specially designed instruction that meets the unique needs of an exceptional individual. *UNESCO (1983)* also sees Special Education as a form of education provided for those who are not achieving, or unlikely to achieve through ordinary provision, the levels of education, social and other attainments appropriate at their age. *Heward and Orlansky (1992)* said that "special education is individually planned, systematically implemented and carefully evaluated instruction to help exceptional learners achieve *the* greatest possible personal self-sufficiency and success in present and future environments. *Heward (2013, p 34)* defines special education as 'individually planned, specialized, intensive, goal-directed instruction'. He further states that, when practised most effectively and ethically it involves the use of evidenced-based teaching methods and the use of these methods is guided by 'direct and frequent measures of student performance'. In all of these definitions, some key points stand out; Special Education involves; i. individuals who are special/exceptional ii. unique learning needs iii. adaptation of the regular curriculum iv. specially designed instruction v. individually planned teaching, vi. intensive and goal-directed instruction vii. customised education Special education may have some similarities with regular education but is different in a lot of ways. One contrast is that special education is specially designed to meet the unique learning needs of individuals. It could be conceptualised as "customised education" whereas general education could be conceptualised as "mass production", one-size-fit-all form of education. The idea of customised education simply means that the programme and all approaches are carefully tailored to meet the unique needs of individual learners. In special education, the emphasis is placed on the **uniqueness** of the individual. **Special Education as Instructional intervention** Special education can also be viewed as purposeful instructional intervention. The philosophical underpinning of special education stems from the medical model of disability which will later be discussed under the concept of disability. It simply explains that persons with a form of disability, deviation or uniqueness must be separated, labelled and be given special attention. In the field of medicine, such individuals are given medical or surgical intervention for them to restore or at least approximate to normalcy. In the same vein, in the field of special education, individuals who deviate in learning are given instructional or educational intervention with the hope of restoring them to normalcy or at least close to it. Hence, special education aims at approximation to what is considered normal. Special education begins where medicine ends and so it could be considered as a form of Para medicine. Heward (2013, p.28) therefore explains that the central purpose of special education is 'instructionally based intervention'. This purposeful intervention prevents, eliminates or helps to overcome the obstacles that might keep an individual with special needs from learning and from full and active participation in school and society. There are three basic types or levels of intervention: 1. **Preventive Iintervention:** This aims at intervening to keep potential or minor problem from becoming a disability. This preventive intervention can be exercised on three levels: i. *Primary Preventive Intervention:* this focuses at reducing the incidence of new cases of disability. This involves efforts to eliminate or counteract the risk factors so that a child never acquires a disability. This preventive efforts targets people who might be at risk. ii. *Secondary Preventive Intervention*: this is targeted towards people who have already been exposed to or display specific risk factors. It aims at eliminating or counteracting the effects of these risk factors. iii. *Tertiary Preventive Intervention*: this targets individuals with a disability and intends to prevent the effects of the disability from worsening. NB: It must be noted that preventive efforts must be embarked on as early as possible even before birth. 2. **Remedial Intervention:**Remediation attempts to eliminate specific effects of disability through teaching. Remediation as an educational term equates rehabilitation in social services. Hence, the purpose of remedial intervention is to teach the person with disabilities skills for independent and successful functioning. Examples of such skills may be academic (reading, writing), social (maintaining conversations) self-care (eating, dressing) or vocational (career and job skills). 3. **CompensatoryIntervention:**This involves teaching a substitute skill or the use of assistive devices/tools that enable a person to engage in an activity or perform a task in spite of a disability. For example, the teaching of how to use prosthetics such as artificial limbs or the use of the white cane for mobility. **\ ** **Terminologies in Special Education** ***At-risk Children*** When talking about **children who are at-risk**, professionals generally mean individuals who, although not yet identified as having a disability, have a high **probability** of manifesting a disability because of harmful biological, environmental, or genetic conditions. Environmental and biological factors often work together to increase the likelihood of a child's exhibiting disabilities or developmental delays. **Environmentally at-risk -** those infants who have developmental delays because they are born into extreme poverty or experiences of abuse and neglect. **Biologically at-risk -** those infants who have developmental delays because of health problems such as premature, low birth weight or born to drug dependent mothers and have congenital abnormalities. Exposure to adverse circumstances may lead to future difficulties and delays in learning and development, but it is not guaranteed that such problems will present themselves. Many children are exposed to a wide range of risks, yet fail to evidence developmental problems. Possible risk conditions include low birth weight, exposure to toxins, child abuse or neglect, oxygen deprivation, and extreme poverty, as well as genetic disorders such as Down syndrome or PKU (phenylketonuria). ***Exceptionality*** This refers to a comprehensive term that is used to describe any individual whose physical, intellectual or behavioural performance deviate substantially or significantly from the norm or what is considered normal. This deviation can be positive or negative. This includes both individuals with disabilities and those who are gifted. Therefore, a person who is exceptional is not necessarily an individual with disability. However, an individual with disability is an exceptional individual. Such individuals may need additional educational, social, or medical services to compensate for the physical, mental, sensory, behavioural and communication characteristics that differ significantly from what is considered normal. In the school system, exceptional individuals will require adaptation, modification, alteration or a change of school practices or special education services in order for the individual to develop to his maximum potential. ***Impairment*** This refers to a loss or damage to part or all of a body organ/system or structure. It could be a temporary or a permanent loss. The loss for example, could be damage to the ear and the hearing mechanism (hearing impairment) or it could be loss of vision due to cataracts which would be a visual impairment. Impairment can be psychological, anatomical, or physiological in nature. It should be made clear, however that, impairments need not be a disability, or a handicap. Impairment then is an injury, illness, or congenital condition that causes or is likely to cause a loss or difference of physiological, anatomical or psychological function. ***Disability*** According to WHO (1999) disability is the physical, sensory, psychological or neurological deviation that results in reduced functioning or loss of a particular body part or organ (impairment) that makes a person unable to perform certain tasks in the same manner as most persons without disabilities. Disabilities are the descriptions of the functional levels of the individuals experiencing the impairment. One or more of the six general areas may be affected; i. Health ii. Social (attitudinal) iii. Mobility iv. Cognitive (intellectual), and v. Communication vi. Sensory Simply put, a disability is the loss or greatly reduced ability to perform a function or any function due to damage or loss of a body part or an organ in the body. In other words, a disability is the impact of impairment upon the performance of activities accepted as elements of everyday living such as mobility, domestic routines, or occupational and communicative skills. Impairment becomes a disability when it hinders the individual from performing normal routines expected of the individual\'s sex, age, and social roles. ***Disability versus Inability*** All disabilities are an inability to do something. However, not every inability to do something is a disability. That is, disability is a subset of inability: A disability is an inability to do something that most people, with typical maturation, opportunity, or instruction, can do (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005). However, age, maturation and opportunity can limit someone's ability creating inability. ***Models (theories) of Disability*** According Kaplan (2008) historically, professionals used four models to explain disability and these are moral model, medical model, rehabilitation model and disability or social model. 1. [The medical model] regards disability as a medical condition or sickness or defect which can be 'corrected' through medical intervention. 2. [The rehabilitation model], an offshoot of the medical model, regards disability as a defect that can be fixed through rehabilitation by a professional or society as a whole. 3. [The social model] sees disability as the result of the dominating attitude of professionals and others, inadequate support services as well as architectural, sensory, cognitive and economic barriers and the tendency to overlook the large variations within the disabled community. 4. [The moral model] regards disability as the effect of end result of sin. This reflects the predominant perception in Ghana where disability is seen as retribution from the gods for some wrongdoing. NB: Disability is also seen from the social model as the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in society on an equal level with others due to social and environmental barriers. Although the terms impairment, disability and handicap are sometimes used interchangeably, they are not synonymous. ***Handicap*** Handicap comes from the time when persons with disabilities were seen with "cup in the hand" on the streets to beg for alms. However, in a more scholarly terms, handicap refers to the limitation or restrictions imposed on an individual either by disability or environmental demands. According to WHO (1980, p. 183), handicap is a social, psychology, and occupational disadvantage that results from impairment and disability. A handicap is the profound effect of impairment and disability. In other words, handicap refers to problems a person with a disability or impairment encounters in interacting with one environment.It is important to note that handicap is a situation specific and depends on a circumstance that makes an individual with impairment or disability disadvantaged. In Ghana and some parts of Sub Saharan Africa, many individuals with disabilities are educationally, occupationally or economically disadvantage because they are unable to attain a level of education or pursue a preferred career because they are blind, deaf or crippled and this is what handicap means. **Historical Developments and Concepts in Special Education** Throughout history, people perceived as "different" have been vulnerable to practices such as infanticide, abuse and abandonment (Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 2005). These practices reflected a common societal fear that the person with disability would defile the human race. Most treatment meted out to persons with disabilities can be traced to three major factors which include beliefs, value system and attitudes. However, the historical roots of persons with disabilities leading to their education is grouped into eras: ancient, asylum and contemporary. ***Ancient Era*** This was the era with evidence of maltreatment of persons with disabilities throughout the world. It was characterised by avoidance, discrimination and exclusion. Belief in the supernatural largely led to condemnation of children born with deformity and declaring them of deserving of death. Hence, infanticide, the killing of children, was largely practised. For example, children with mental retardation were considered as creatures incapable of human feelings and therefore undeserving of human compassion. The Greeks, the Romans and the Spartans had history denoting severe maltreatment that were meted out to children with disabilities. For instance, because of the need for military superiority, their societies needed to be free of defective individuals and as consequences, children with disabilities were killed, left in the hills or forest to die, thrown off cliffs, locked away or drowned. Fathers have the rights to terminate any of their children with disability. There were rigid caste systems such that persons with disabilities had no rights to certain places such as the shrine, the chief's palace, and other sacred places. Persons with disabilities were ridiculed, used as servants or source of amusement and some had to be used as 'guinea pigs" for experiments. This period was marked by persecutions, killings and ostracism. ***Asylum Era*** The period of Christianity and the medieval time brought some changes in the lives of persons with disabilities because of the compassion of people. This era is characterised by acceptance, humane treatment and segregation. Persons with disability were kept in homes/institutions called asylums where they were cared for. This era was a time of traditional search for the non-existing cure for disabilities from sooth-sayers, shrines, fetish priests, and even charlatan men of God. Many institutions were however established for them for welfare purposes rather than educational as a gesture of sympathy. It first began with mental hospitals for lunatics and then other centres for providing asylum to other categories of persons with disabilities came into existence throughout the world. All this time, there was no form of education for persons with disabilities. It they were just provided with shelter and sustenance. ***Contemporary Era*** The contemporary era began with Renaissance movement which propagated intellectual movement known as the enlightenment. It was the time when knowledge was abounding and people began questioning the way of doing things. So, the question of why persons with disabilities were not educated and how to do so may have ignited the search for answers. This gave birth to most of the genuine efforts in the direction of special education. The Renaissance movement provided essential theoretical grounds for the action-oriented work of the many pioneers in the field of special education. Some of these pioneers include; Abbe C. M. de l'Epee (1760); Jean Marc Gaspard Itard (1774-1838); Thomas Gallaudet (1787-1851); Louis Braille (1809-1851); Eduard Seguin (1812-1880); Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922); Alfred Binet (1857-1911); Maria Montessori (1870-1952) etc. There was the realisation that persons with mental, hearing and visual disabilities could learn and achieve success if they are not only segregated but also given special attention in the form of education. By the close of the 18^th^ century, special education was accepted as a branch of education and separate schools were established for the education of diversified group of children with disabilities all over Europe and the USA. **Historical Developments in Ghana** Special education was first introduced to Ghana (then Gold Coast) in 1945 through the missionaries during the colonial era. The following are the highlights of its development; - Basel mission established the 1^st^ school for the Blind at Akropong (1945). It also served the cripple in literacy and basket weaving. - Consequently, Mrs. Greenwood and Mrs. Sakyiama-Amoako were taken abroad to be trained in braille and to return to support blind education in Ghana. - The second school for the blind was then established in Wa in1948 by the Presbyterian and Methodist churches. - Deaf education was started by Dr Andrew Foster (a deaf African-American) in Ghana shortly after independence in 1957 and established a demonstration school for it at Accra and then moved to Akropong. - Later in 1957, the Government of Ghana assumed full responsibility of education of the "handicapped" children and established a unit for it which later became the Division of Special Education under the Ghana Education Service, GES. - Private individuals such as Mrs. Salome Francois also established a private special school called New Horizon School in 1972 in Cantonment in Accra for children with developmental disabilities. - In 1965, the Government of Ghana established the Deaf Education Specialist Training College to train specialist teachers for the deaf. - Later, the specialist programme was moved to the University of Education, Winneba in 1992 to be established as the Department of Special Education which has been training basic school special education teachers for the country. - Presently, there are a number of Colleges of Education and the University of Cape Coast that have courses and programmes in Special education as part of teacher preparation. The historical development of the education of persons with disabilities has brought about some important concepts and nomenclatures in special education. The following are a few of them: ***Labelling*** It is the act of categorising, classifying or stigmatising an individual and placing him or her into any of the categories of exceptional individuals. Hence, in special education, we have about eight major categories of disabilities. These include: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Heward (2013) has enumerated some benefits of labelling and possible disadvantages of labelling some of them have been stated below. ***Advantages*** - It recognises differences in learning or behaviour and is the first important step in responding to these differences. - It makes peers accept atypical behaviour of disabled individuals. - It enables professionals to communicate, categorise and evaluate their research findings. - It enables disability-specific advocacy groups to promote specific programmes and facilitate legislative action. - It allows funds and resources for research and other programmes based on specific categories of exceptionality to flow. - Labels highlight the needs of exceptional individuals to policy makers, professionals and the public at large. ***Disadvantages*** - Labelling highlights the exceptional individual's disability or weaknesses rather than their ability. - It leads to stigmatisation, ridicule and rejection. - It makes the exceptional individual have negative self-concept. - Once the individual is labelled it would be difficult for the individual to achieve the status of just another kid. - Labelling helps keep exceptional individuals out of the regular education classroom. - Teachers hide behind label and do not do their work. As labels suggest that there is some deficit with the individual and therefore it is his own fault, while in actual fact it can be due to poor teaching. To avoid some of the harms of labelling, some scholars propose a **non-categorical approach**. This involves [seeing students as individuals with specific strengths and weakness that must be identified and addressed in the educational environment.] As a regular school teacher, you are in a unique position to help shape the attitudes and opinions of your students, their parents, and your colleagues about individuals with disabilities. Please consider the following points when dealing with individuals with disabilities. - Do not sensationalise a disability by saying "afflicted with," "crippled with," "suffers from," or "victim of." Instead, say "a person who has intellectual disability". - Do not use generic labels for disability groups, such as the retarded or the deaf. Emphasize people, not labels. Say "people with learning disability" or "people who have communication disorders." This puts the focus on the individual, not the particular functional limitation. - Emphasize abilities, not limitations. For example, say "uses a wheelchair/ braces" or "walks with crutches," rather than "is confined to a wheelchair," "is wheelchairbound," or "is crippled." - Similarly, do not use emotional descriptors such as "unfortunate" or "pitiful". - Avoid euphemisms in describing disabilities. Some blind advocates dislike partially sighted because it implies avoiding acceptance of blindness. Terms such as handicap, mentally different, physically inconvenienced, and physically challenged are considered condescending and outdated. They reinforce the idea that disabilities cannot be dealt with up front and they should be avoided. - People with disabilities should never be referred to as "patients" or "cases" unless their relationship with their doctor is under discussion. - Show people with disabilities as active participants in society. Portraying persons with disabilities interacting with nondisabled people in social and work environments helps break down barriers and open lines of communication. ***Exclusion*** - It is a situation where individuals with disability were excluded from school. - They were denied education in established institutions of learning. If they ever received a form of education, it was provided to them in homes or hospitals away from school facility. - Their exclusion from school was because of the disability. ***Segregation*** - It is a situation where individuals with disability are educated in a special school. - Such individuals are exempted from the regular school because of their disability. - Schools that practice a form of segregation are the schools for the blind, deaf and intellectual disability. ***Normalisation*** - It involves the acceptance of people with disabilities, with their disabilities, offering them the same conditions as are offered to other citizens. - It involves the normal conditions of life -- housing, schooling, employment, exercise, recreation and freedom of choice. - This includes "the dignity of risk", rather than an emphasis on "protection". - Normalisation reflects the idea that all individuals regardless of their abilities have a right or opportunities of everyone else in everyday life. - The person with a disability ought to be able to live as equal as possible to a normal existence and with the same rights and obligations of other people. - The normalisation principle signifies the need to make available to all people with special needs the patterns and conditions of everyday life which are close to the norms and patterns of mainstream society as possible. - Normalisation is not just the physical inclusion of individual with special needs in the community but rather they should be supported through training and supervision. - Normalisation = equal chances, equal opportunities, equity. ***Deinstitutionalisation*** - The movement of individuals from institutions to community-based settings. - Concomitant with deinstitutionalisation movement has been the expansion of community-based services (Saland, 1990). - These include living arrangements such as group homes and apartments, community training programmes, and work experiences in competitive, community settings. ***Integration*** - It is most closely associated with social policy to end separate education for ethnic minority individuals. - Most often it is simply defined as the physical placement of the students with extensive needs in general school campuses. - Integration is most commonly associated with the concept of mainstreaming and then inclusion. - The two types of integration are Social integration and Instructional integration. ***Mainstreaming*** - It refers to the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes during specific time periods based on their skills. - The child is placed at the regular classroom for some school hours and pulled out at some specific hours for special attention. - It is also considered as the "pull out" method where classes are combined with special education classes. - Educating individuals with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers fosters understanding and tolerance, better preparing students of all abilities to function in the world beyond school. - It has a resource room (self-contained classroom) with a resource teacher. - Some schools that practise mainstreaming are Okuapeman SHS, PTC, UG, UEW, UCC ***Inclusion*** According to the concept of inclusion, special education students should attend their home school with their age and grade peers, all day, in the regular education classroom rather than being pulled out of regular classrooms to receive special services. This is in accordance with the Regular Education Initiative (REI), a position held by some special educators that students with disabilities should be served exclusively in regular education classrooms and should not be "pulled out" to attend special classes. The inclusion system posits that support services should be brought to the child and presumes that the child will benefit from being in that class. Full inclusion connotes full-day placement for all students, regardless of handicapping conditions. - It is giving education to children with special education needs and disabilities together in regular schools. - Inclusion is the most effective means of doing away with discrimination, creating welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving education for all. - By this, all children including those with those with disabilities and those without disabilities are educated in the regular school where equal opportunities and access are to provided. **Practice of Special Education as Team Work** Special education is a team game. Hence, it is common for regular education teachers to work with other professions as a team. The team that plans, delivers and evaluates the programme of specially designed instruction and **related services** to meet the unique needs of an individual with special educational needs and disabilities. **What are Related services?** They are the ancillary programmes required by handicapped children to benefit from special education (Mandel & Fiscus, 1981). Services offered to students with disabilities to supplement special education programmes (Lewis & Doorlag, 1995). The additional services provided to students with disability so they can benefit fully from special or regular education The related services include assistive technology services (to gain independence eg. Wheelchair, prosthetics, magnifiers, hearing aids, memory aids, etc); Physical therapy, audiology, speech and language, recreational therapy, counselling, medical, interpreting services, orientation and mobility service. It is mandatory that educational assessments of a student's strengths and needs be done **multidisciplinarily** and that related services be provided to meet the unique requirements of each learner. Some of the professional who provide related services include: **[Professionals in Education]** **Regular teacher;** - teaches in the regular classroom and is responsible for the day-to-day management of learning in the classroom. - provides important information about the student\'s academic, social, emotional and behavioural abilities to multidisciplinary team to have vivid knowledge of the students. - make referrals to specialists like audiologist and physiotherapist, in consultation with the student\'s parents for further assessment. - implements the instructions of the IEP and takes responsibility for instructing the individual with SEND. He/she does this in consultation with other professionals. - evaluates the learning progress the individual with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) and reports it to the members of the multidisciplinary team. - make the classroom environment regular classroom conducive and inclusive for all learners. NB: Sometimes regular school teachers are also supported by ***paraeducators.*** They are also known as paraprofessionals, teacher aides and instructional/teaching assistants. They play important roles in delivering special education services to students with disabilities (Carnahan, Williamson, Clarke, & Sorensen, 2009). **Special education teacher;** - offers great assistance to the regular class teacher. - helps in teaching either in the regular class, special class or resource room. - helps to handle individuals with exceptional need and in certain cases, act as consultants to the regular class teacher. - evaluates student\'s achievements on the goals spelt out in the IEP and relay this information to the other members of the team. - Provides information and advice on where to place students with special needs. **Itinerant and peripatetic teachers** - They are trained in special education and their duty is to diagnose and draw up remedial programmes for students with special needs. - Such teachers move from school-to-school supervising students\' progress. - They deliver services to students either in the classroom or outside the classroom. - Also, they work and cooperate with the regular teacher and officers in education offices. - They make identification, referrals for placement and counsel parents on how to handle their individuals with special needs. - In Ghana they do not exist rather, work is subsumed by Special Education Needs Coordinators (SENCos). **[Professionals in Medicine]** **Nurses /physician** report information about any relevant health problems, conditions and diseases to the team members. Apart from providing the medical information, it is their duty to make clear the educational implication of the information they are providing. **Ophthalmologists** diagnose and treat eye diseases. They determine the cause, degree and type of visual loss. **Optometrists** specialize in evaluation and optical correction of refractive errors by providing spectacles. **Optician** grinds and fits corrective lenses that have been prescribed by an ophthalmologist or optometrist. The information that these three professionals will provide will go a long way in helping the IEP team to plan for the education of a visually impaired student. **Physiotherapists** specialize in muscles, bones and joint problems. They engage the physically impaired in exercises and massages in order to improve their motor abilities. On the team, they would be able to tell the type of exercises they will put the student through and the likely outcomes in terms of improvement of motor abilities. **Audiologists** specialize in hearing. Their contribution to the assessment and placement recommendation of students with hearing loss is very important. They; - prescribe the type of help that will be required for those with hearing loss for example, ear washing, surgery, fitting of hearing aids or suggetion of special teaching skills. - offer counselling services to parents and people with hearing impairment. - can act as consultants to educational, medical, legal and other professionals. - can recommend appropriate seating position for students with hearing losses to teachers. **Otologist** a physician whose specialization is diseases of the ear. She/he may participate in the diagnosis of hearing loss and treat the individual later for related problems. **Speech and language therapists/pathologists** are responsible for speech and communication disorders. They; - screen, identify, assess and diagnose speech and language problems. - recommend appropriate strategies that would help individuals with such problems. - help parents and teachers understand individuals with speech and language problems. - directly teach individuals with such problems appropriate ways to articulate words and develop effective communication skills. **[Professionals in Psychology ]** **School psychologists** assess individuals to come out with their strengths and weaknesses and also administer standardized test and interpret the results of such tests. They; - provide inputs as to the type of placement to be given. - interview and consult with parents, guardians and teachers, for information about individuals who have academic difficulties. - apply psychological theories and principles to school work and then, train teachers to deal with difficult individuals. **Social workers** consult with parents and teachers and serve as liaison personnel between the school and the home. They collect information about the individual both in the home and at school and help individuals who have problems interacting with individuals. **School counsellors** help individuals solve many personal problems. They gather information from teachers, school records and parents. They help individuals/student to better understand themselves and make informed decisions and choices. In addition, they play a tremendous role in involving parents in the education of their individuals. **Collaboration in Special Education** Regular school teachers are able to suspect and solve learning and behaviour problems in the classroom when they work together. Three ways in which team members can work collaboratively is through coordination, consultation and teaming (Heward, 2013). **Coordination** is the simplest of collaboration. It requires only ongoing communication and cooperation to ensure that services are provided in a timely and systematic fashion. Although it is an important and necessary element of special education, coordination does not require service providers to share information or specifics of their efforts with one another. **Consultation** is when team members provide information or expertise to one another. Consultation is traditionally considered to be unidirectional with the expert providing assistance and advice to the novice. However, team members can, and often do, switch roles from consultant to consultee and back again. **Teaming:** There are a number of teams in the delivery of special education; intervention assistance team, child study team, Individualised Education Programme (IEP) team. Each step of the special education process involves a group of people who must work together for the benefit of a child with special education needs. For special education to be most effective, these groups must become functioning and effective teams. Teaming is the most difficult level of collaboration to achieve; it also pays the most reward. It bridges coordination and consultation together and builds on their strength. It brings on board reciprocity and information sharing among all team members through more equal exchange. In practice, three team models have been seen in the field of special education. It includes multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary teams. *Multidisciplinary teams* are composed of professionals from different disciplines such as education, psychology and medicine who work independently of one another. Each team member conducts assessments, plans interventions and delivers services. In is kind of team work, there is the risk of not providing services that recognise the child as an **integrated whole; t**here is the tendency to splinter the child into segments along the respective disciplines. *Interdisciplinary teams* are characterised by formal channels of communication between members. Although each professional usually conduct discipline-specific assessments, the interdisciplinary team meets to share information and develop intervention plans. Each member is generally responsible for implementing a portion of the service plan related to his/her discipline. NB: members of both multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary teams generally operate in isolation and may not coordinate their services to achieve the integrated delivery of related services. *Transdisciplinary teams* involve the highest level of team involvement but also the most difficult to accomplish. Members seek to provide services in a uniform and integrated fashion by conducting joint assessments, sharing information and expertise across discipline boundaries, and selecting goals and interventions that are discipline-free. Members also share roles often referred to as role release. Multidisciplinary Interdisciplinary Transdisciplinary Least collaborative Most collaborative Least cooperative Most cooperative Least coordinated Most coordinated Least integrated Most integrated **Laws and Legislations Backing the Practice of Special Education** **United State of America** In the USA there are many laws and legislations and new reforms backing the education of individuals with disabilities. Notable amongst them is the Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) which has seen major review and re-enactment. The IDEA is viewed as a "Bill of Rights" for children with exceptionalities and their families; it is the culmination of many years of dedicated effort by both parents and professionals. It is considered to be one of the most important pieces of federal legislation ever enacted on behalf of children with special needs. It may rightfully be thought of as the legislative heart of special education in the USA. Despite legislative and court challenges over the past three decades, the following six principles have been well entrenched in the IDEA: **A free appropriate public education (FAPE).** All children, regardless of the severity of their disability (a "zero reject" philosophy), must be provided with an education appropriate to their unique needs at no cost to the parent(s)/guardian(s). Included in this principle is the concept of related services, which requires that children receive, for example, occupational therapy as well as other services as necessary in order to benefit from special education. **The least restrictive environment (LRE).** Children with disabilities are to be educated, to the maximum extent appropriate, with students without disabilities. Placements must be consistent with the pupil's educational needs. **An individualised education program (IEP).** This document, developed in conjunction with the parent(s)/guardian(s), is an individually tailored statement describing an educational plan for each learner with exceptionalities. The IEP, which will be fully discussed later in this chapter, is required to address a number of issues relating to ensuring befitting education for the individual with SEND. **Procedural due process.** The act affords parent(s)/guardian(s) several safeguards as it pertains to their child's education. Briefly, parent(s)/guardian(s) have the right to confidentiality of records; to examine all records; to obtain an independent evaluation; to receive written notification (in parents' native language) of proposed changes to their child's educational classification or placement; and to an impartial hearing whenever disagreements arise regarding educational plans for their child. Furthermore, the student's parent(s)/guardian(s) have the right to representation by legal counsel. ** Non-discriminatory assessment.** Prior to placement, a child must be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team in all areas of suspected disability by tests that are neither racially or culturally nor linguistically biased. Students are to receive several types of assessments, administered by trained personnel; a single evaluation procedure is not permitted for either planning or placement purposes. ** Parental participation.** This mandates meaningful parent involvement. Sometimes referred to as the "Parent's Law," this legislation requires that parents participate fully in the decision-making process that affects their child's education. **[Ghana ]** In Ghana, the current developments in special education have been drawn from educational reforms and national policies and from international documents. Hence, special education today is the result of major policy initiatives in education adopted by past and present governments. Although these initiatives have their checked history, they have actually helped in structurally transforming the education system and improving access to quality education for all individuals in Ghana including those with disabilities. Here are a few highlights of them; 1. **The 1961 Education Act (Act 87)** Every child who attained the school going age as determined by the Minister shall attend a course of instruction as laid by the Minister in a school recognized for the purpose by the Minister. 2. **The 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana: Article on Education Rights** ***Article 25(1):*** All persons shall have the right to equal educational opportunities and facilities and with a view to achieving the full realization of that right. Specific concerns include basic education being free, compulsory and available to all. 3. **Persons with Disabilities (PWD) Act, 2006 (Act 715)** Unlike the policies and acts before it, which talked generally about all Ghanaian children to include those with SEND, the PWD Act, 2006 (Act 715) appears to have clear-cut directives on social and educational issues for individuals with disabilities in Ghana. The following are the core clauses on education: ***Clause 16: Education of a child with disabilities*** 1. A parent, guardian or custodian of a child with disabilities of school-age shall enrol the child in a school. 2. A parent, guardian or custodian who contravenes subsection (1) commits an offence and is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding ten penalty units or to a term of imprisonment not exceeding fourteen days. ***Clause 17: Facilities and equipment in educational institutions*** The Minister of Education shall by Legislative Instrument designate schools or institutions in each region which shall provide the necessary facilities and equipment that will enable persons with disabilities to fully benefit from school or institution. ***Clause 18: Free Education and Special Schools*** The Government shall a. Provide free education for a person with disability and b. Establish special schools for persons with disabilities who by reason of their disabilities cannot be enrolled in formal schools. ***Clause 19: Appropriate training for basic school graduates*** Where a person with disability has completed basic education but is unable to pursue further formal education, the Minister shall provide the person with appropriate training. ***Clause 20: Refusal of admission on account of disability Refusal of admission on account of disability*** 1. A person responsible for admission into a school or other institution of learning shall not refuse to give admission to a person with disability on account of the disability unless the person with disability has been assessed by the Ministry responsible for Education in collaboration with the Ministries responsible for Health and Social Welfare to be a person who clearly requires to be in a special school for children or persons with disability. 2. A person who contravenes Subsection (1) commits an offence and is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding fifty penalty units or imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or to both. ***Clause 21: Special education in technical, vocational and teacher training institutions*** The Minister of Education shall by Legislative Instrument designate in each region a public technical, vocational and teacher training institutions which shall include in their curricula special education, such as\ 1. sign language, and\ 2. Braille writing and reading ***Clause 22: Library facilities*** A public library shall as far as practicable be fitted with facilities that will enable persons with disability to use the library. ***Clause 34: Periodic screening of children*** The Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Ministries responsible for Education and Social Welfare shall provide for the periodic screening of children in order to detect, prevent and manage disability. ***Clause 35: Establishment of assessment centres*** The Ministry of Health in collaboration with District Assemblies and the Ministry responsible for Social Welfare shall establish and operate health assessment and resource centres in each district and provide early diagnostic medical attention to mothers and infants to determine the existence or onset of disability. ***Clause 36: Incentive for manufacturers of technical aids and appliances*** A person who manufactures technical aids or appliances in the country for the use of persons with disability shall be given tax exemption that the Minister in consultation with the Minister of Finance may determine in Regulations. **[International Dimensions ]** Other international documents that influence special education in Ghana are - The Jomtien World Conference (1990) (Education for All, EFA). - The Dakar Framework - Convention on the Rights of the Child - The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action which focuses on the Inclusive Education. **UNIT TWO** **INCLUSIVE EDUCATION** **OUTLINE** 1. Introduction 2. Justification for inclusive education 3. Definition of inclusive education 4. Benefits of inclusive education 5. Challenges in inclusive education 6. Overview of inclusive education in Ghana 7. Roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana 8. Barriers to inclusive education in Ghana **OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIT** By the end of this unit, the student should be able to: 1. Explain the concept of inclusive education 2. Justify the need for inclusive education 3. Mention at least three benefits and challenges of inclusive education 4. Tell the development of inclusive education in Ghana 5. Discuss the roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana 6. Identify at least four barriers to inclusive education in Ghana and suggest ways to overcome the challenges **Introduction** Inclusive education has become the current approach to education worldwide. Before the implementation of inclusive education, students with special education needs (SEN) were expected to learn in an environment separated from children without SEN. However, in 1994, the international conference held in Spain introduced the concept of inclusive education, thus, the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action, which called for an inclusive education system. Ghana among several nations across the globe were signatories to the Salamanca statement which called for an inclusive education system. *The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education* (UNESCO,1994) recognises the/that: 1. Education is a fundamental right, and every child must be given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable level of learning 2. Every child has unique needs, interest, abilities, characteristics, and learning needs 3. Education system should be structured to cater for the unique needs of all learners 4. Students with special educational needs (SEN) must have access to regular schools which should accommodate them within a child-centred pedagogy capable of meeting their needs. 5. Regular schools with inclusive orientation is the most effective means of combating discriminating attitudes, creating welcoming communities and building an inclusive society. **Justification for inclusive education** According to Ainscow (2020), the paradigm shift towards inclusive schools can be justified on three grounds namely: 1. **Educational**: This means that school will have to devise strategies that meet the unique needs of all learners to benefit all learners. 2. **Social**: Inclusive education seeks to combat any form of discrimination in the school setting and promote positive attitude by educating all children together in the same educational environment. 3. **Economic**: Establishing and maintaining schools which educate all children together is less costly than building separate schools to house particular group of children. **Definition of Inclusive Education** The concept of inclusive education has been defined by several authors. While some others argue that there is no clear cut definition (Dayan, 2017; Abery, Tichá & Kincade, 2017), some authors also argue that, the concept of inclusive education should be described rather than defined ((Danso, 2009; Gyimah, 2009). It is important to note that, whether inclusive education is described or defined, it should highlight the major issues that were outlined in the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action. According to UNESCO (2020, p. 8), inclusive education refers to "securing and guaranteeing the right of all children to access, presence, participation and success in their local regular school". Cologon (2019) mentioned that, inclusive education involves valuing and facilitating the full participation and belonging of everyone in all aspects of our education communities and systems. According to Lewis, Wheeler and Carter (2017) *inclusive education* refers to the meaningful participation of students with SEN in general education classrooms and programmes. It can be said that, inclusive education is a system that ensures that, students with and without disabilities are educated in the same educational environment with equal opportunities devoid of any form of discrimination. **Benefits of Inclusive Education** Several researches point out the benefits on inclusive education to students with and without SEN, regular education teachers and parents and families. These benefits have been highlighted below: ***To students with and without disabilities*** a. **Academic outcomes**: There is strong evidence that, students with disabilities benefit academically from inclusive education. Empirical findings showed that, students with SEN who are taught in the regular school setting performed better than peers who were taught in a segregated school setting in both academic and vocational skills (Cologon, 2019). Research also shows that, students with SEN who are educated in regular school settings are more likely to graduate at the expected time than students in segregated settings. Additionally, it has been argued that inclusive education stimulates learning in that more time is spent on academic learning than segregated schools. b. **Communication and language outcome**: Communication and language development in students with SEN has been found to be enhanced through inclusive education. Support for inclusive peer communication has been found to be particularly important. Students with SEN in inclusive settings have been shown to increase independent communication, mastery of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies, and increased speech and language development when provided with appropriate support for inclusive education. Consequently, it can be said that, inclusive education supports communication and language development of students with SEN, which enhances the likelihood of their full participation in the inclusive setting. c. **Physical development outcome**: Existing research provides evidence to suggest that inclusive education contributes positively towards the physical development of students with SEN who experience physical disability. For example, students who experience physical disability who are educated in the regular school settings show gains in motor development and have a higher degree of independence. Inclusive education has been found to encourage participation and provide more opportunities for students with SEN to observe and learn through the 'power of the peer', as well as to learn through trial-and-error which can enhance their physical development. For instance, a student who has fine motor problem may be encouraged to engage in colouring activities with her or his non-disabled peers. This can improve her/his fine motor skills. Students with physical disability who learn in the inclusive setting are more active because of the regular peer support and the urge to interact with their non-disabled peers. d. **Social and Emotional outcome**: Research evidence suggests that genuinely inclusive education allows students to build and develop friendships. It also facilitates improved attitudes between students with and without SEN. Inclusive settings encourage higher levels of interaction than segregated settings, which results in more opportunities for children and young people to establish and maintain friendships. The more time a student spends within an inclusive setting, the greater the social interaction. In turn, this leads to better outcomes for social and communication development. The growing body of research into the outcomes of inclusive education for social development has also found that inclusion results in a more positive sense of self and self-worth for students with and without SEN. Inclusive education leads to a sense of belonging, increased likelihood to be part of a school group, and to a self-concept not only for students with SEN who may require help, but also for students without SEN who may offer help. Hence, inclusive education can promote advanced social skills in both students with and without disabilities. **Behavioural outcome**: Overall, research provides evidence that inclusive education leads to improved behavioural development in students in both students with and without SEN. According to Rossetti (2014), the idea that, bullying and other inappropriate behaviour are more likely to occur in the regular school setting is not really the case. They argued that, in spite of the higher supervision and teacher support in the special school setting, the full range of bullying occurs in the special schools setting. Even though there are different schools of thought when it comes to improved behaviour development and the type of school setting, particularly based on teacher or parent ratings, growing evidence suggests that children and young people who attend 'special' settings are more likely to experience bullying than their peers in the regular school settings. Inclusive education is a key factor in reducing or eliminating bullying and other inappropriate behaviour. ***To regular education teachers*** The benefits of inclusive education are not only students with and without disabilities. Research has found that, through participation in inclusive education, teachers experience professional growth and increased personal satisfaction. Additionally, developing skills to enable the inclusion of students with SEN results in higher-quality teaching for all students and more confident teachers. Even though, most teachers are initially reluctant to participate in inclusive education and may feel that they are not equipped for the challenges involved (Deku and Vanderpuye, 2017), several Studies have also found that most teachers develop confidence and positive attitude towards teaching in their ability to implement inclusive education. ***To parents and families*** Apart from the benefits discussed above, Chauhan and Mantry (2018) outlines the following benefits of inclusive education: 1. It helps the teacher to develop practical competencies that will lead to a conducive learning environment. 2. It strengthens good relationship between students with and without SEN 3. It provides a mechanism for responding to the learning and other needs of all learners as soon as they are suspected or identified 4. Students without disabilities can learn to value and respect children with diverse abilities in inclusive classroom. 5. It enhances collaboration between regular and special education teachers **Challenges in Inclusive Education** The implementation of inclusive education has been faced with several challenges worldwide, especially in developing countries**.** Schuelka (2018) identified the most common challenges to the effective implementation of IE in developing countries. These include: - Funding - Inadequate school resources and facilities - Inadequate specialised school staff - Inadequate teacher training in inclusive thinking and techniques - Rigid curriculum - Unsupportive school and district leadership - Socio-cultural attitudes about schools and disability **Overview of inclusive education in Ghana** The ideology of Inclusive education was initiated at the world conference held in Salamanca, Spain in June 1994. During the conference, the delegates recognised the urgency and the need to provide equal opportunities for learners with SEN within the regular school setting. The conference was held by United Nations Educational scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO). There were delegates from around the world representing 92 governments and 25 international organizations. This maiden conference set the pace for the implementation of inclusive education worldwide. In response to the global call for inclusive education, Ghana started piloting inclusive education in 2003/2004 (Isaac & Dogbe, 2020) academic year. In the 2013, the Ministry of Education drafted the inclusive education policy (MoE, 2013). In 2015, the policy was implemented for all levels of education. In May 2016, the policy was launched. Currently, all private and public schools in Ghana are expected to implement inclusive education. It is also important to note that, there are two other documents that were developed to aid the implementation of the inclusive education policy. These documents are the implementation plan and the standard and guidelines for the practice of inclusive education. The policy is set to be reviewed every five years. There are four main objectives of the 2015 inclusive education policy. They are: 1. Improve and adapt education and related systems and structures to ensure the inclusion of all learners particularly learners with special educational needs 2. Promote a UDL/learner friendly school environment for enhancing the quality of education for all learners. 3. Promote the development of a well-informed and trained human resource cadre for the quality delivery of IE throughout Ghana. 4. Ensure sustainability of Inclusive Education Implementation **Categories of persons with special educational needs recognised in the policy** In Ghana persons with Special Educational Needs as captured in the Inclusive Education policy are said to be "children with special educational needs. They go beyond those who may be included in disability categories to cover those who are failing in schools, as well as a wide variety of reasons that are known to be barriers to a child's optimal progress in learning and development" (p.6) The various categories of persons recognised in the policy are: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | 1. Persons with Hearing | 13. Persons with other health | | Impairment | impairment (asthma, etc) | | | | | 2. Persons with Visual | 14. Children displaced by natural | | Impairment | catastrophes and social | | | conflicts | | 3. Persons with Intellectual | | | Disability | 15. Nomadic children (shepherd | | | boys, fisher-folks' children | | 4. Persons with physical | and domestic child workers) | | disability | | | | 16. Children living in extreme | | 5. Persons with Deaf-blindness | social and economic | | | deprivation | | 6. Persons with Multiple | | | disabilities. | 17. Children exploited for | | | financial purpose | | 7. Persons with Speech and | | | Communication disorders | 18. Orphans and children who are | | | not living with their | | 8. Persons with Attention | biological parents | | Deficit Hyperactivity | | | Disorder | 19. Children living with HIV/AIDS | | | | | 9. Gifted and Talented persons | 20. Street children | | | | | 10. Persons with Specific | | | Learning Disability | | | | | | 11. Persons with Autism | | | | | | 12. Persons with Emotional and | | | Behaviour Disorder | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Roles of stakeholders in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana** Based on the policy requirement, stakeholders are expected to collaborate with the Ministry of Education to ensure the implementation of inclusive education. The stakeholders include the Ministry of Education; Ghana Education Service; Parents, head teachers, teachers and Special Education Needs Co-ordinators. The Ministry of Education (2015) stipulates the following roles of stakeholders as follows: **The Ministry of Education** The ministry shall provide overall leadership for Inclusive Education. The ministry shall have the responsibility of: 1. Overseeing policy implementation, review, coordination, monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment. 2. Leading the submission of budget proposals for inclusive education financing while working closely with the Ministry of Finance to ensure inflow of funds to Inclusive education programmes. 3. Assessing progress against targets. 4. Coordinating reporting on inclusive education to relevant stakeholders. 5. Overseeing the review of curriculum, training and professional development of all educational personnel in collaboration with all key stakeholders. **The Ghana Education Service** The Ghana Education Service (GES) is tasked with oversight of the implementation, ensuring that the issues defined in the IE policy are implemented through the national, regional and district decentralised structures to the school level. It shall act as the body that provides advice and direction as well as monitoring progress and instituting mechanisms for ensuring compliance in the education system on IE measures and practices as defined by this policy. 1. The GES through its decentralized structures shall provide all schools with adequate and requisite teaching and learning materials including assistive devices for all learners especially, meeting the diverse and special educational needs. 2. The GES shall ensure that school authorities follow the Universal Design Principle and the Child Friendly School Model. 3. The GES shall collaborate with the Ghana Health Service to conduct training for Health Staff in the implementation of the IE. 4. The GES shall collaborate with communities, parents and PTAs to monitor the implementation of the IE **Parents** The PTAs/School Management Committees also have a role in ensuring that communities, families and parents are involved in planning for early childhood education. Parents must be encouraged and supported to be involved in meeting the needs of their children. Their involvement shall include but not be limited to the following: 1. Supplying vital information about the child's health prior to referral for appropriate intervention. 2. Participating in school-related decisions e.g. collaborating with teachers and administrators to set realistic goals for their children. 3. Fulfilling their home-school obligations or expectations in order to meet the needs of their children. 4. Forming associations inclusive of SMCs/PTAs for individuals with special needs. 5. Engage in advocacy for the rights of all children. **Regular education teachers** The roles of regular education teachers in the implementation of inclusive education was not specifically specified in the inclusive education policy but the standard and guidelines for the practice of inclusive education in Ghana. The standard and guidelines for the practice of inclusive education requires both the private and public schools to provide quality learning for all learners through four key areas thus; **process**, **learner**, **personnel** and **resources**. The regular education teacher has key roles to play in all these areas to ensure that learners receive quality education. For the purpose of this course, emphasis will be placed on the process and the learner. According to the Ministry of Education (2015), The following are the expected roles of the regular education teacher in the implementation of inclusive education: **Process** The process is focused on the teaching and learning activities, which includes the content and the instruction. The following are some of the roles expected to be played by the regular education teacher. Teachers are expected to**:** 1. **Adapt the content of the national curriculum (teaching syllabi) to make them relevant and functional to all learners.** 2. **Set appropriate objectives and achievable targets for all learners, ensure learners can cope with the levels set for them; use appropriate pace for all learners, do not slow down or hurry some learners through the curriculum (syllabus).** 3. **Use diverse strategies in teaching. For example, multi-sensory approaches, demonstration, project, fieldtrips, direct-teaching, differentiated teaching, individual teaching, peer teaching, small group teaching, role plays, scenarios. Teachers should also do co-teaching.** 4. **Use different communication techniques (speech, sign language, braille light, ICT) while teaching.** 5. **Provide appropriate and adapted games and recreational equipment such as bell balls, show down, soft ball, among others.** 6. **Provide additional time for learners with SEN to complete learning activities/tasks and assignment.** 7. **Provide learners with SEN opportunities to participate in all activities, both within and without the schools.** 1. **Teachers shall screen all learners for special educational needs. Families should be invited to witness and learn about the process and importance of screening and early intervention of special educational needs.** 2. **Teachers shall refer learners suspected of having special educational needs for further assessment by District Inclusive Education Team (DIET) and later by the District Assessment Team (DAT).** 3. **DIET shall organize case conferences and develop IEP for learners diagnosed with special educational needs. Parents, guardians and custodians shall be involved in all stages involving the screening and diagnosis of learners' needs.** 4. **Teachers shall complete school registers indicating the diverse learning needs in their classrooms.** **Special Education Needs Co-ordinators (SENCOs)** **SENCOs are special educators who co-ordinate the implementation of inclusive education Their key mandate is to support the regular education teachers to handle children with SEN in the inclusive setting and ensure that children with SEN receive quality education in the inclusive setting (Okai, 2021). They are expected to be at the school level, district, regional and national level. However, their expected roles are not explicit in the policy or the standard and guidelines unlike head teachers' and teachers' that are clarified in the policy. A study conducted by Okai (2021) found out that, SENCOs perform the following roles in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana:** 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. **Challenges in the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana** According to Okai (2021) there are some barriers that hinder the effective implementation of inclusive education in Ghana. They are**:** 1. Lack of SENCOs 2. **Negative attitude and poor perception of educational leaders** 3. **Inadequate assessment tools and assessment centres** 4. **Lack of assistive technologies** 5. Negative attitude of parents 6. **Inadequate preparation of parents towards IE** 7. **Poor collaboration among professionals** 8. Inadequate professionals 9. Inadequate funds 10. Inaccessible physical environment 11. Negative attitude of teachers 12. Poor competence of teachers 13. Large class size Apart from the Okai's findings, the following researchers also mentioned some challenges to the implementation of IE: 14. Negative attitude and prejudice mind (Adera & Asimeng-Boahene, 2011; Nketsia, 2016). 15. Limited pedagogical competence (Adusei, Sarfo, Manukre, & Cudjoe, 2016; Nketsia, 2016). 16. Shortage of qualified teachers (Chitiyo, Kumedzro, Hughes & Ahmed, 2019). 17. Lack of educational resources (Gyimah, Sugden, & Pearson, 2009). 18. Teacher's inadequate skills in identification and assessment (Gyimah & Amoako, 2016). **Suggestions for effective implementation of IE in Ghana (**Whole class discussion**)** **UNIT 3** **LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES** **DEFINITION** According to American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) (2007), *Intellectual disability is a disability characterised by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behaviour as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18. (AAMR Ad Hoc Committee on Terminology and Classification, 2010, p. 1)* - American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) changed its name to the name in existence till 2017. - The change of name became necessary since people with sub-average intellectual abilities have been the subject of ridicule and scorn; terms such as "idiot," "imbecile," and "moron" were labels for those who, today, would be referred to as having severe, moderate, or mild intellectual disability. - Developmental disability connotes that the limitations interfere with normal development of functions. In practice, most professionals simply use the shorter-term intellectual disability. - In many public schools, the term mentally retarded is still used (Polloway, Patton, & Nelson, 2011). The AAIDD definition underscores two important points: i. Intellectual disability involves problems in adaptive behaviour, not just intellectual functioning, ii. Intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour of a person with intellectual disabilities can be improved. **IDENTIFICATION** Determining whether a person is intellectually disabled or not addresses two major areas: intelligence and adaptive behaviour. **Intelligence Tests** School psychologists use individually administered tests rather than group tests when identifying students for special education because of the accuracy and predictive capabilities of IQ tests. The two most widely used intelligence tests are the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V) (Wechsler, 2014) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (Roid, 2003a). The WISC-V consists of a Full-Scale IQ, as well as four composite scores: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. Although the major intelligence tests are among the most carefully constructed and researched psychological assessment instruments available, they are far from perfect. Educators should be aware of the following considerations (Overton, 2016; Salvia, Ysseldyke, & Bolt, 2013; Venn, 2014): Intelligence is a hypothetical construct. No one has ever seen a thing called intelligence; we infer it from observed performance. We assume it takes more intelligence to perform some tasks at a given age than it does to perform others. An IQ test measures only how a child performs at one point in time on the items included on the test. An IQ test samples a small portion of an individual's skills and abilities; we infer from that performance how a child might perform on other tasks and in other situations. IQ scores can change significantly. IQ scores often increase over time, particularly in the 70 to 80 range, where diagnostic decisions are not so clear cut (Whitaker, 2008). Examiners are hesitant to diagnose intellectual disability on the basis of an IQ score that might increase after a period of intensive, systematic intervention. Intelligence testing is not an exact science. Among the many variables that affect a person's IQ score are motivation, the time and location of the test, inconsistency or bias by the test administrator in scoring responses, which IQ test was selected, and which edition of that test was used. - Intelligence tests can be culturally biased. IQ tests tend to favour children from the population on which they were normed. Some items may tap learning that a middle-class child is more likely to have experienced. Both the Binet and Wechsler tests, which are highly verbal, are especially inappropriate for children for who are English language learners. An IQ score should never be used as the sole basis for making a diagnosis of intellectual disability or a decision to provide or deny special education services. An IQ score is just one component of a multifactored, non-discriminatory assessment. An IQ score should not be used to determine IEP objectives. A student's performance on criterion-referenced tests of curriculum-based knowledge and skills is a more appropriate and useful source of information for IEP objectives. **Adaptive Behaviour** Sometime ago, individuals who are intellectually disabled were solely diagnosed on the basis of an IQ score. Today, it is recognised that IQ tests alone cannot determine a person's ability to function. Furthermore, they are only one indication of a person's ability to function. Professionals therefore considered adaptive behaviour in addition to IQ tests in defining intellectual disability. because they began to recognise that some students might score poorly on IQ tests but still be "streetwise" (able to cope, for example, with their jobs and peers). Adaptive behaviour is "the collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills that have been learned by people in order to function in their everyday lives" (AAIDD, 2015a). - Conceptual---using language for speaking, reading, writing; using number concepts such as those involved in counting and telling time - Social---getting along with others, being a responsible group member, solving social problems, following rules and obeying laws, avoiding being victimized - Practical skills---daily living activities such as dressing, toileting, and food preparation; job skills; healthcare, traveling in the community, following schedules, maintaining one's health and safety, making purchases; and using the phone (adapted from AAIDD, 2015a) **TYPES AND CLASSIFICATIONS** Significantly, persons with intellectual disability are classified based on severity and educability. This is the traditional classification of Intellectual Disability determined by IQ scores: a. Those with mild intellectual disability (IQ of 50 to 70) are also known as **educable.** b. Those with moderate intellectual disability (IQ of 35 to 50) are also referred to as **trainable.** c. Those with severe intellectual disability (IQ of 20 to 35) also can be called **custodial** d. Those with profound intellectual disability (IQ below 20); also known as **vegetables** **Per the notion that intellectual disability is improvable, the developers of the current AAIDD definition hold that how well a person with intellectual disabilities functions is directly related to the amount of support he receives from the environment. The concept of support is integral to the AAIDD's conceptualisation of intellectual disabilities.** Contemporarily, clinicians and researchers apply the same four descriptors to designate levels of intellectual disability but base their classification on a person's adaptive behaviour rather than IQ score. This new classification recognises the central role of adaptive behaviour in determining the types and levels of supports a person needs, the inexactness of intelligence testing, and the importance of clinical judgment in diagnosis and classification (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Schalock & Luckasson, 2014). Supports are defined as "resources and strategies that aim to promote the development, education, interests, and personal well-being of a person and that enhance individual functioning" (AAIDD Ad Hoc Committee, 2010, p. 18). Classifications under supports are; 1. **Intermittent**: Supports given on a needed basis, characterised by episodic (the person does not always need the support) or short-term nature (supports are needed during life-span transitions, e.g.; job loss or acute medical crisis). Intermittent supports may be high or low intensity when provided. 2. **Limited**: Refers to an intensity of supports characterised by consistency over time, time-limited but not an intermittent nature, may require fewer staff members and less cost than more intense levels of support. In other words, support is provided for a short time. E.g., time-limited employment training or transitional supports during the school-to-adult period. 3. **Extensive**: Refers to regular support needed on daily basis in at least some environment (e.g., school, work or home) and not time-limited in nature. e.g., long-term support and long-term home living support. 4. **Pervasive**: Refers to support given across the environment; it is potentially life-sustaining nature and involves more staff members. The support must be constant and of high intensity. **PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS** People with intellectual disabilities generally have substantial shortfalls in adaptive behaviour and are likely to experience deficits in attention (difficulty allocating their attention properly), memory, language, self-regulation, motivation, and social development. Though they have widespread memory difficulties, they often have particular problems with **working memory** -the ability to keep information in mind while simultaneously doing another cognitive task (Lanfranchi, Baddeley, Gathercole, & Vianello, 2012) and short-term memory-the ability to recall and use information that was encountered just a few seconds to a couple of hours earlier (Henry, 2008).Virtually all persons with intellectual disabilities have limitations in language comprehension and production. People who are intellectually disabled also have difficulties with metacognition. **Metacognition** refers to a person's awareness of what strategies are needed to perform a task, the ability to plan how to use the strategies, and the evaluation of how well the strategies are working. Students with intellectual disabilities do not tend to use such strategies spontaneously so they are said to have problems with self-regulation. **Self-regulation** is a broad term referring to the ability to regulate one's own behaviour. Self-regulation is thus a component of metacognition. People with intellectual disabilities have a variety of social problems. A key to understanding the behaviour of persons with intellectual disabilities is to appreciate their problems with motivation (Switsky, 2006). They tend to look for external rather than internal sources of motivation. They often lack awareness of how to respond in social situations (Snell et al., 2009). **LEARNERS WITH SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS** **DEFINITION** Getting a widely accepted definition of emotional or behavioural disorders is lacking since no clear agreement exists about what constitutes good behaviour. Disordered behaviour is a social construct and all children behave inappropriately at times. In response to the problems with the many proposed definitions of emotional or behavioural disorders (EBD), the Council for Children with Behavioural Disorders (CCBD, 2000) drafted a new definition which was later adopted by the National Mental Health and Special Education Coalition: *The term "emotional or behavioural disorder" means a disability that is characterized by emotional or behavioural responses in school programmes so different from appropriate age, cultural, or ethnic norms that the responses adversely affect educational performance, including academic, social, vocational, or personal skills; more than a temporary, expected response to stressful events in the environment; consistently exhibited in two different settings, at least one of which is school-related; and unresponsive to direct intervention in general.* Advantages of this definition, according to the CCBD (2000), are that it clarifies the educational dimensions of the disability; focuses on the child's behaviour in school settings; places behaviour in the context of appropriate age, ethnic, and cultural norms; and increases the possibility of early identification and intervention. **TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS** **Externalising and internalising behaviours are the two broad characteristics exhibited by persons with EBD.** Externalising behaviour involves striking out against others. Individuals with emotional or behavioural disorders do so with disturbing frequency, and their antisocial behaviour often occurs with little or no apparent provocation. Aggression and conduct disorders take many forms such as verbal abuse toward adults and other peers, destructiveness, vandalism and physical attacks on others. These individuals seem to be in continuous conflict with those around them *(*Heward, Alber-Morgan, & Konrad*,* 2017)*. Conduct disorders,* Internalising behaviour involves mental or emotional conflicts, such as depression and anxiety (Gresham & Kern, 2004). Immaturity and withdrawal are other characteristics of internalising disorders. These two dimensions are not mutually exclusive; comorbidity (the co-occurrence of two or more conditions in the same individual) is common. Few individuals with an emotional or behavioural disorders however exhibit only one type of such maladaptive behaviour. Students with internalising problems might be less obvious, but they are not difficult to recognise. Either pattern of abnormal behaviour adversely effects academic achievement (intelligence and achievement) and social relationships. **IDENTIFICATION** The following steps can help to identify students with emotional or behaviour disorders: Systematic screening should be conducted as early as possible to identify children who are at risk for developing serious patterns of antisocial behaviour. Most screening instruments consist of behaviour rating scales or checklists that are completed by teachers, parents, peers, or children themselves. Direct observation and measurement of specific problem behaviours within the classroom can indicate whether and for which behaviours intervention is needed. Five measurable dimensions of behaviour are rate, duration, latency, topography, and magnitude. Functional behaviour assessment (FBA) is a systematic process for gathering information to discover a problem behaviour's function, or purpose, for the student. Two major types of behavioural functions of problem behaviours are (a) to get something the student wants (positive reinforcement) and (b) to avoid or escape something the student does not want (negative reinforcement). Results of FBA can point to the design of an appropriate and effective behaviour intervention plan (BIP). HEARING IMPAIRMENT ------------------ ### What is Hearing Impairment Heward (2013) regards hearing impairment as a generic term which encompasses a wide range of conditions from mild to profound or from slight hearing loss to profound deafness. **Anatomy of the ear** Anatomy of the ear can be seen in Fig. 1. The outer ear is made up of the pinna (ear lobe) and auditory canal. The middle ear consists of the eardrum, malleus, incus and stapes. The inner ear is made up of the cochlea and auditory nerve.It is possible that one may have hearing loss in only one ear. This is referred to as**unilateral hearingloss.** Where the two ears are defective in hearing, the person is said to have **bilateral hearing loss.** *Anatomy of the Ear* **Process of Hearing** 1. For hearing to be possible the earlobe (pinna) must trap sound waves. 2. The sound is transmitted into the middle ear through the auditory canal. 3. The tympanic membrane (ear drum) vibrates the sound. 4. In the middle ear, sound energy is concentrated and the three small bonesmalleus, incus, and stapes provide amplification. 5. The sound waves are converted into electrical impulses in the cochlea. 6. Finally, the sound electrical impulses are transmitted to the brain for interpretation through auditory nerves. The part of the Brain responsible for hearing is the left temporal lobe. If any part of the structures is damaged it can cause a hearing loss. ### ### Types of Hearing Impairment There are various types of hearing impairment. They are most often defined on the basis of: 1. Degree of loss 2. Type of loss/Site of lesion. 3. Age of onset 1. **Degree of loss** Degree of hearing loss refers to the severity of the loss. The numbers are representative of the patient\'s thresholds, or the softest intensity at which sound is perceived. Hearing sensitivity is indicated by the quietest sound that can be detected, called thehearing threshold. For the degree of hearing loss to be detected it must be measured by the audiologist. Sound is measured in units.Loudness of sound is measured in decibels (dB) while the frequency (Pitch) of sound is measured in Hertz (Hz). The lower the dB the smaller the sound and the larger the dB the louder the sound. **Level of Hearing Loss** -10-25dB NORMAL 26-40 dB MILD 41-55 dB MODERATE 56-70 dB MODERATELY SEVERE 71-90 dB SEVERE 91dB or more PROFOUND **[Classification]** i. **Hard of hearing (26dB-70dB):** Individuals with mild to moderately severe losses are referred to as **hard of hearing**. Their hearing loss makes understanding of speech through the ear alone difficult unless with aid. They benefit from use of residual hearing, hearing aid and lip/speech reading. ii. **Deaf (71dB-90dB or more):**Those with severe-profound losses are **deaf**. A person who is deaf is unable to use hearing aid to understand speech. He/she communicates using sign language. 2. **Type of loss/Site of lesion** The type of loss is concerned with the **site of lesion** of loss. Hearing impairment are categorised as: 1. Conductive hearing loss 2. Sensorineural hearing loss 3. Mixed hearing loss. 4. Central hearing loss **Conductive hearing loss** is due to blockage or damage in the outer and middle ear that prevents sound waves from travelling (being conducted) to the inner ear. This could result from too much wax and in children the presence of foreign materials such as clay, sand eraser or seed. Also, it can result from the fact that some part of the middle or outer ear has not formed properly. **Sensorineural hearing loss** results from damage to the cochlea and auditory nerves in the inner ear. **Mixed hearing loss** involves a combination of any two or all of the conductive, sensorineural and central hearing loss. **Central hearing loss** results from damage of the hearing centres in the brain and as such one cannot hear. It is caused by damage to the nerves of the central nervous system. 3. **Age of onset** The age of onset deals with time when the loss occurred. Under age of onset the following types can be identifies - **Congenital loss**: This one is present at birth/it occurs from birth. It can include hereditary hearing loss or hearing loss due to other factors present either in prenatal or at the time of birth. - **Adventitious/acquired loss**: The adventitious hearing loss is a hearing loss which appears after birth, at any time in one\'s life, perhaps as a result of a disease, a condition, or an injury. i. **Pre-linguistic loss**: This is when the loss takes place before speech is acquired. ii. **Post-lingual loss**: post-lingual loss occurs after the acquisition of speech ### [Characteristics and Identification ] Individuals with hearing impairment exhibit several characteristics for identification. Among them include the following. - **Thrusting the head forward to listen** - **Constantly dragging the feet when walking** - **Turns better ear to the source of sound** - **Poor voice modulation** - **Inability to carry out simply verbal instructions** - **Constantly bangs doors** - **Easily irritated** - **Inability to articulate some speech sounds** - **Always calling for repetition from the speaker** [Adaptation and Teaching Strategies ] ------------------------------------------------- [Communication ] ---------------------------- - face the child during all oral communications --------------------------------------------- - do not exaggerate your mouth movement ------------------------------------- - speak clearly and naturally --------------------------- - demonstrate concepts practically -------------------------------- - use gestures, body language and facial expressions to emphasize ideas --------------------------------------------------------------------- [Seating ] - Allow the child to choose sitting place to take advantage of the visual and auditory cues - There should be facial contact in the classroom - The seating position should be comfortable to the child [Environmental needs] - Make sure the classroom is serene - Control environmental noise in the school - Avoid excessive noise in the classroom **LEARNERS WITH VISUAL IMPAIRMENT** **DEFINITION** **Visual impairment is a condition of reduced or total loss of visual functioning that cannot be remedied by any conceivable means, According to** Hallahan, Kauffman and Pullen (2009), visual impairment is [vision loss] (of a person) to such a degree as to qualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation of [visual] capability resulting from either [disease], [trauma], or congenital or degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive correction, medication, or surgery. Two common ways of describing someone with visual impairment are based on legal and the educational definitions: **Legal Definition** The legal definition involves assessment of visual acuity and field of vision. **Visual acuity** This is the ability of the eye to clearly distinguish forms or discriminate among details. Individuals are considered legally blind when their visual acuity measures 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a corrective lens (Social Security Administration, 2015). It is most often measured by reading letters, numbers, or other symbols from the Snellen Eye Chart. An individual whose visual acuity in the better eye after correction falls between 20/70 and 20/200 is considered partially sighted or Low vision for legal or statutory purposes **Field of vision** **This is the angular area the eye can see when an individual looks straight.** A person whose field of vision is restricted to an area no greater than 20 degrees is considered legally blind. **Educational definition** Educators focus on functional use of sight for academic work and classify learners with visual impairments based on the extent to which they use vision, tactile and auditory senses for learning (Heward, Alber-Morgan & Konrad*,* 2017)*.* - A student who is **totally blind** receives no useful information through the sense of vision and uses tactile and auditory senses for all learning. - A student who is **functionally blind** has so little vision that she learns primarily through the tactile and auditory senses; however, she may be able to use her limited vision to supplement the information received from the other senses and to assist with certain tasks (e.g., moving about the classroom). - A student with **low vision** uses vision as a primary means of learning but supplements visual information with tactile and auditory input. **BASIC ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE** Basically, effective vision requires proper functioning of three anatomical systems of the eye: i. The optical system, ii. the muscular system, iii. the nervous system. - **The eye's optical system** collects and focuses light energy reflected from objects in the visual field (cornea, iris, lens,) - **The eye's muscular system** enables ocular motility (the eye's ability to move). Six muscles attached to the outside of each eye enable it to search, track, converge, and fixate on images. - **The eye's nervous system** converts light energy into electrical impulses and transmits that information to the b