Biology State EOC Study Guide PDF

Biology State EOC Study Guide 1. Scientific Inquiry – Identify all of the components of a well designed experiment (control group, experimental group, independent variable (experimental variable), dependent variable, constant (controlled variable). Interpret graphs and charts....

Biology State EOC Study Guide 1. Scientific Inquiry – Identify all of the components of a well designed experiment (control group, experimental group, independent variable (experimental variable), dependent variable, constant (controlled variable). Interpret graphs and charts. 2. Life molecules – Identify all life molecules (aka macromolecules and polymers) and their monomers (smaller molecules that they are composed of). Describe their functions in the human body. Macromolecule Monomer Functions carbohydrates monosaccharides short term energy supply (single sugars) –glucose proteins amino acids body structure (structural proteins), transport oxygen in the bloodstream, enzymes, energy supply (when fats and lipids are unavailable) lipids (fats) fatty acids and glycerol body insulation, hormones, long term energy storage, cell membranes nucleic acids nucleotides DNA, RNA, and ATP used to store and transmit the genetic code (ATP – energy currency) 3. Cell Structure and Function – Identify all cell parts (and their functions) and similarities and differences between all types of cells. a. Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes Cell Type Description Examples Prokaryote only single celled organisms, bacteria no membrane bound organelles, no nucleus (composed only of a cell membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes) Eukaryote “true nucleus” cells with nucleus and all cells found in multicellular membrane bound organelles organisms (including plants (mitochondria, golgi, ER, and animals) lysosomes, chloroplasts etc) b. Similarities and Differences between plant and animal cells (both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic) Organelles found in plant and animal cells Plant and Animal Cells Animal Cell only Plant Cell only nucleus, nucleolus, cell centrioles cell wall, chloroplast (for membrane, cytoplasm, nuclear photosynthesis), central envelope, lysosome, ER, golgi, vacuole (for water storage) mitochondria, ribosome, microtubules, cytoskeleton c. Movement of molecules across the cell membrane. Types of Passive Transport – Passive transport requires no energy on the part of the cell and molecules will move down the concentration gradient. Type of Passive Description Sample molecules Transport diffusion movement from an area of high concentration to oxygen, carbon dioxide low concentration (down the concentration gradient) until equilibrium is reached  facilitated diffusion with the assistance of a glucose, molecules too large to diffusion transport (membrane protein) cross the membrane w/o assistance osmosis diffusion of water across a cell membrane water Osmotic response of water when cells are exposed to solutions with varying solute concentrations. Solution Type Description Water movement hypertonic the solution has a higher concentration water leaves the cell resulting in of solute than the inside of the cell cell shrinkage (wilting in plants) hypotonic the solution has a lower concentration water enters the cell, may cause rupture of solute than the inside of the cell in an animal cell, plant cell will not rupture b/c of cell wall presence isotonic the solution has a concentration equal to water enters and leaves the cell freely the concentration inside the cell with no net gain or loss of water (equilibrium) Types of Active Transport – Active transport requires energy on the part of the cell and moves molecules up/against the concentration gradient. Type of Active Transport Description Sample Molecules endocytosis Movement of molecules into food molecules and liquids, the cell that are too large to sometimes bacteria or viruses pass through the membrane that are tagged for destruction by by the immune system facilitated diffusion. The cell membrane wraps around the molecule forming a vesicle. exocytosis Movement of molecules out of cell products or waste the cell too large to pass through the membrane. Reverse process of endocytosis. sodium potassium pump transport protein moves sodium and potassium potassium ions into the cell and sodium ions out of the cell contractile vacuole pumps water out of single celled organisms d. Cell Theory a. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. b. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function. c. Cells come from preexisting cells. 4. Energy and Cells a. ATP 1. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrying molecule in cells. ATP is composed of three parts: 1) adenine (nitrogen containing base) 2) ribose (sugar) and 3) 3 phosphate groups 2. The energy in ATP is stored in the bond between the 2nd and 3rd phosphate group. When the bond is broken it results in an ADP molecule, a free phosphate molecule and energy is released. 3. ATP can be remade and used as the phosphate group is added or removed to ATP. b. Photosynthesis – An endothermic process by which autotrophs produce food (glucose) using sunlight energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Takes place in the chloroplast of the cell. Light PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION: 6CO2 + 6H2O ----------> C6H12O6 + 6O2 Photosynthesis Reactions Reaction Description Light dependent reactions Set of reactions in which sunlight is absorbed and used to produce (light reactions) energy carrying molecules (ATP and NADPH) necessary for the light independent reactions to take place. Sunlight and water are necessary for the reactions to take place. Takes place in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. Light independent reactions Set of reactions in which energy carriers from the light dependent (dark reactions, Calvin Cycle, reactions are used to transform carbon molecules into high energy carbon fixation) food molecules (such as glucose). Requires carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and energy carriers from the light dependent reactions. Takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast. c. Cellular Respiration – An exothermic process by which both autotrophs and heterotrophs break down food molecules and release the energy stored in the chemical bonds and store it in the form of ATP. Takes place in the mitochondria of cells. CELLULAR RESPIRATION EQUATION: C6H12O6 + 6O2 --------- 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP Summary of Reactions of Cellular Respiration and Fermentation Reaction Aerobic (requiring Description Number of ATP oxygen) or Anaerobic molecules produced (no oxygen required) glycolysis anaerobic The splitting of 4 are produced but since glucose molecule it requires 2 for the into two 3- process to take place carbon molecules there are only 2 left known as pyruvic over acid. Takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. Krebs cycle aerobic The process that 2 produces energy carriers (ATP, NADH, and FADH2 that may be used in the electron transport chain (ETC). Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. Electron Transport Chain aerobic Uses the energy 32-34 carriers produced during the Krebs cycle to fuel the ETC. Takes place in the inner mitochondrial membrane (the cristae). Total is 36-38 ATP  Fermentation (not part anaerobic An alternative pathway 2 of cellular respiration) to cellular respiration when oxygen is unavailable that is designed to allow glycolysis to continue until oxygen becomes present. Produces lactic acid in muscle cells and alcohol in single cell organisms. 5. The Cell Cycle a. Identify and describe the stages of the cell cycle. 1. Interphase a. G1 b. S C. G2 2. Mitosis a. Prophase b. Metaphase c. Anaphase d. Telophase (including cytokinesis) 6. Types of cell reproduction (view summarizing table below) a. binary fission – A process that prokaryotes (bacteria) use to divide (reproduce). It produces daughter cells that are identical to the parent. This is asexual reproduction. b. mitosis – Asexual cell division that takes place in eukaryotic body cells. Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell genetically. Mitosis takes place for growth and development in multicellular organisms and to replace dead or damaged body tissue. Mitosis begins when the fertilized egg begins dividing. This is asexual reproduction. Different cell types may be produced by turning on specific genes. c. meiosis – Cell division that takes place in the germ cells found in the sex organs. This process produces haploid gametes that will be used for sexual reproduction. This process produces unique cells. Types of cell type parent cell daughter cell type parent cell # of Sexual Reproduction type number/daugh divisions or ter cell Asexual number binary fission prokaryote bacteria bacteria 1/2 1 asexual s – bacteria mitosis eukaryotes – diploid diploid 1/2 1 asexual somatic cells somatic cell somatic cell meiosis eukaryotes – diploid haploid sex 1/4 2 sexual germ cells germ cell cell (gamete- egg or sperm) 7. Cell Cycle regulation - a. external factors – factors outside the cell that may trigger the cell to divide or stop dividing i. hormones ii. cell to cell contact b. internal factors – factors inside the cell that may trigger the cell to divide or stop dividing, these are usually triggered by external factors i. cyclins and kinases c. cancer – uncontrolled cell division that is usually a result of damaged genes that control cell division (a mutation). Mutations may come as a result of a virus, exposure to carcinogens, or inheritance. 8. Multicellular Organization – Cells in multicellular organisms work together and are organized at  different levels. From simplest to most complex these levels are: cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism. 9. Stem Cells – Stem cells are undifferentiated (differentiation is the process in which cells become specialized in a multicellular organism) cells that once directed may develop into more than 200 different cell types within a multicellular organism. DNA will control what type of cell the stem cell becomes by turning on specific sets of genes. a. embryonic stem cells – found in the early stages of development and may develop into any type of cell in the body b. adult stem cells – partially differentiated stem cells that may develop into a one of several types of cells Biology State EOC Study Guide 2nd Semester 1. Genetics a. Mendel’s Laws i. The Law of Segregation – 1) Organisms inherit two copies of each gene, one from each parent and 2) Organisms donate only one copy of each gene in their gametes. Thus, the two copies of each gene segregate, or separate, during gamete formation. ii. The Law of Independent Assortment – Allele pairs separate independently of each other during gamete formation , or meiosis. That is, different traits appear to be inherited independently from one another (shown later to be true only if they are on separate chromosomes). b. Identify and interpret genotypes, phenotypes, and Punnett squares (including genotype and phenotype frequencies). Remember that genotypes represent the genetic makeup (with upper and lower case letters “TT, Tt, tt”) and phenotypes are physical characteristics (e.g. hair color or eye color). This includes monohybrid (crosses involving one trait) and dihybrid (crosses involving two traits) crosses. c. Types of genotypes (F=allele for freckles and f=allele for no freckles) Genotype Type of genotype TT homozygous dominant/purebred tt homozygous recessive/purebred Tt heterozygous/hybrid d. Interpret Punnett Squares for the following types of inheritance i. dominant and recessive – one allele will mask another when present ii. codominance – both alleles are dominant so a heterozygous genotype will result in an individual that display phenotypes for both alleles (Where R=red fur allele and W=white fur allele then RR=red , WW=white, RW= red and white cow). iii. incomplete dominance – neither allele is dominant to the other so a heterozygous individual will result in a phenotype that is somewhere in between them (where R=red flower allele, W=white flower allele the RR=red, WW=white, and RW=pink) iv. multiple allele traits – e.g. ABO blood type v. sex linked traits – traits carried on the x chromosome e. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance - A basic principle that states genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns. f. Interpret pedigrees i. Identify and interpret relationships on a pedigree chart. Remember that squares are males, circles are females and shade individuals have the trait being tracked by the pedigree. ii. Identify dominant and recessive, autosomal and sex linked patterns of inheritance 2. Nucleic Acids – Construct a complementary strand of DNA. Transcribe and translate a protein from a  given sequence of DNA or mRNA. a. DNA - 2 stranded molecule in the shape of a double helix composed of repeating subunits (monomers) called nucleotides. i. Nucleotide is composed of 1) a nitrogen containing base (A- adenine, T-thymine, C cytosine, G-guanine 2) the sugar deoxyribose and 3) a phosphate group. ii. Replication – the process in which DNA is copied for the purpose of cell reproduction iii. Base pairing rules – adenine always pairs with thymine and vise versa, guanine always pairs with cytosine and vise versa b. RNA – single stranded molecule composed of nucleotides i. RNA nucleotides are composed of 1) a nitrogen containing base (A- adenine, U-uracil, C cytosine, G-guanine 2) the sugar ribose and 3) a phosphate group. ii. Types 1. mRNA – Messenger RNA carries the message of a single gene or group of genes from DNA to the ribosome where protein synthesis takes place 2. tRNA – Transfer RNA carries amino acids from the cytosol of the cell to the ribosome for protein synthesis 3. rRNA –Ribosomal RNA along with proteins compose ribosomes (the sites of protein synthesis) c. Transcription – The process in which a gene from the DNA is copied to a strand of mRNA (complementary base pairing rules apply). d. Translation – The process in which an mRNA message is translated into a protein. tRNA brings the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome as dictated by the triplet code (codons) encoded in the mRNA. e. Read an amino acid chart (Left, then top, then right) “CAU” codes for His - histidine f. Identify mutations and their effect on proteins. i. Gene Mutations – mutations restricted to a single gene or small group of genes 1. substitution – change of a single letter in a nucleotide sequence; may or may not result in a changed protein 2. frameshift – results from a nucleotide insertion or deletion ii. chromosomal mutation – mutation that affects part of or an entire chromosome iii. somatic cell mutation – will be passed on to resulting daughter cells but will not be passed on to offspring iv. germ cell mutation – will be passed onto offspring because it’s taken place in reproductive cells (may result in a genetic disorder) 3. Evolution  a. Natural selection – Organisms most fit for their environment will survive and pass their favorable traits on to their offspring resulting in a change in the population over time genetically. b. Survival of the fittest – Those organisms most fit will survive and reproduce. c. Microevolution – changes within a species as a result of natural selection d. Macroevolution – changes that result in a species changing over time to the point of becoming a new species e. Evidence for Evolution i. Paleontology – the study of fossil records ii. Biochemistry (Molecular Biology) – organisms similar in structure share many similarities in DNA iii. Embryology – the study of early stages of development – comparisons of embryos show similarities in development iv. Anatomy – comparison of body structures show similarities between organisms 1. homologous structures – structures that are similar from a developmental standpoint between organisms but may be different functionally (e.g. whale flippers are homologous to the wings of a bat – they are similar developmentally but different in their function (fins for swimming vs. wings for flight) f. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium – Allele frequencies will remain the same from generation to generation in a population unless acted upon by outside influences. When allele frequencies change as a result of these influences, evolution may result. In order for allele frequencies to remain the same, the following must take place. i. No mutations – mutations will lead to phenotypic changes ii. No migration – no individuals may enter or leave the population 1. gene flow – the introduction of new alleles into a population as a result of migration iii. Nonrandom mating – mates must be selected randomly; if mates are selected based on certain more desirable or attractive traits, it will result in allele frequencies changing iv. Natural selection cannot take place – natural selection will cause allele frequencies to change over time as the environment dictates what traits are most desirable. v. Large population – a large population is less susceptible to change in allele frequency due to mutation, migration, natural selection or genetic drift (changes in allele frequency due to random mating events) Note: Any disruption to the above, may lead to speciation (the formation of new species over time) g. Patterns of evolution i. coevolution – the evolution of two or more organisms in response to one another (e.g. plants and pollinators (birds, bees, insects); plants require pollinators for reproduction and pollinators rely on the plants for nectar, fruit, etc). ii. convergent evolution – species evolve similarly in function but differently developmentally (e.g. sharks and dolphins are similar in the ecological niches that they fill, feeding on the same foods and living in the same habitat however the shark is a fish and the dolphin is a mammal) iii. adaptive radiation – many species evolve from one ancestral species (e.g. the many species of finches found on the Galapagos Islands are thought to have evolved from a single species from the mainland in South America) iv. divergent evolution – two or more species evolve from a single species as their gene pools become separate and they become more and more different genetically over time 4. Ecology – the study of organisms and their interactions with one another and the environment a. levels of organization –ecologists have classified the living world into levels of complexity and organization i. organism – a single living thing ii. population – an interbreeding group of organisms of the same species, living in the same area iii. community – all of the populations of organisms living in a given area iv. ecosystem – a community and its surrounding environment v. biosphere – the portion of the earth in which organisms live b. Energy Flow in Ecosystems i. The sun is the source of all energy (with very few exceptions) on earth. Autotrophs use sunlight energy to produce their food (high energy sugars) which will ultimately become available to other consumers through the food chain. ii. Trophic levels – levels of energy transfer in an ecosystem 1. 1st trophic level – consists only of producers 2. 2nd trophic level – contains herbivores (plant eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both plants and animals). 3. 3rd trophic level and any subsequent trophic levels– contains carnivores (meat eaters) and omnivores Note: Organisms may be found at multiple trophic levels (e.g. people are in the 2nd trophic level when feeding on plants but also in the 3rd trophic level (and beyond) when feeding on meat (other consumers). iii. Ecological Pyramids – models that show the distribution of numbers, biomass, and energy flow in ecosystems 1. energy pyramid – Displays the distribution of energy within an ecosystem. The most energy is available in the 1st trophic level and the least amount of energy is available at the higher trophic levels. Only 10% of the energy available at each trophic level is available to the next trophic level. For example, only 10% of the energy available to producers (the first trophic level) is available to rabbits (herbivores) feeding in the second trophic level. 2. pyramid of numbers – Displays the distribution of actual numbers of individuals in each trophic level within an ecosystem. The first trophic level (consisting of plants) contains the most individuals with the fewest number of individuals in the higher trophic levels that include top predators. 3. biomass pyramid –Displays the relative amounts of biomass (matter in living things) found in each trophic level. The most biomass is in the first trophic level and the least biomass is in the higher trophic levels. iv. Food chains – Show a single feeding pathway within an ecosystem. Remember that arrows represent the flow of energy and not who eats who. v. Food webs – Show all of the feeding interactions within an ecosystem. c. Biogeochemical Cycles i. carbon cycle – largely driven by the exchange of gasses resulting from the cyclical nature of photosynthesis and cellular respiration ii. hydrologic cycle (water cycle) iii. nitrogen cycle – Nitrogen is necessary for living things to produce nucleic acids and proteins. While it is plentiful in the atmosphere, nitrogen is only available to many living things in the form of nitrate. Bacteria are largely responsible for taking nitrogen from the atmosphere and converting it to a usable form (nitrate) for other living things to use. Identify the role played by the following processes in the nitrogen cycle: nitrogen fixation, denitrification, nitrification, ammonification, decomposition. d. Succession – the sequential growth of organisms in an ecosystem that has either sustained damage or has never seen plant life before i. primary succession – succession that takes place in an area that has never had plant growth before (e.g. a newly formed volcanic island) 1. rock is broken down through years of freezing thawing and erosion, contributing to minerals necessary for soil formation 2. organisms such as lichen, algae, and moss which may grow without soil live and die through many generation contribution to the organic nutrients necessary for fertile soil ii. secondary succession – Succession taking place in an area that has had an established community before (abandoned farmland or developed land, a flood plain, forest fire). Typically follows the progression below (depending on the climate). A grassland may never move past number 2 on the list. 1. annual grasses/weeds 2. shrubs 3. small deciduous trees and pines 4. deciduous forest e. Community interactions – all species are dependent on other species for survival i. symbiosis – interactions (relationships) between organisms of different species 1. predation – predator kills and consumes the prey (lion and wildebeest) 2. parasitism – one species benefits (the parasite) while one species is harmed (the host) e.g. a tapeworm and a dog 3. mutualism – both species benefit (e.g. plants and pollinators) 4. commensalism – one species benefits while the other remains unaffected (e.g. a squirrel uses the shade provided by a tree, a barnacle attaches itself to a whale) 5. competition – interaction that results when two species are competing for the same resource f. Populations i. populations are measured by numbers and density ii. populations may stop growing as a result of limiting factors 1. density independent limiting factors – catastrophic events, such as flooding, fires, etc. that may limit a population’s growth 2. density dependent limiting factors – factors that are a result of high population density that may result in reduced population growth (e.g. competition for food and resources, the spread of disease and parasites) iii. populations fluctuate in size as they respond to one another (e.g. the predator prey relationship – one prey increase then the predators increase, when the predators increase then the prey decrease, when the prey decrease then the predator decreases etc.) g. Environmental science i. The earth sustains itself through a delicate balance of natural processes, including biogeochemical cycles and the greenhouse effect. ii. Human activities affect the processes that take place on earth through our use of resources, burning of fossil fuels. 1. Non-renewable resources – resources that once consumed are used up (e.g. fossil fuels, metal, ore etc.) 2. Renewable resources – resources that can be reused or renewed (e.g. water, lumber, wind, geothermal energy)