BIOL*71000 Learning Objectives PDF

**[BIOL\*71000: Learning Objectives]** **Unit 1: Organization of Life** 1. **Define biology, anatomy, and physiology.** Biology- the study of all living things. Anatomy -- the study of physical structures within an organism. Physiology -- the study of how physical structures function. 2. **D...

**[BIOL\*71000: Learning Objectives]** **Unit 1: Organization of Life** 1. **Define biology, anatomy, and physiology.** Biology- the study of all living things. Anatomy -- the study of physical structures within an organism. Physiology -- the study of how physical structures function. 2. **Discuss some of the sub-disciplines of biology, including cytology, microbiology, and pathology.** Cytology -- the study of cells Microbiology -- the study of microscopic organisms Pathology -- the study of diseases (viruses, bacteria, etc.) **1.3 Name the 6 kingdoms and describe their characteristics.** +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Archaea | Animals | Fungi | Protists | Plants | Eubacteri | | | | | | | a | +===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+===========+ | -Prokaryo | -Eukaryot | -Eukaryot | -Eukaryot | -Eukaryot | -Prokaryo | | tic | ic | ic | ic | ic | tic | | | | | | | | | -Unicellu | -Multicel | -Mostly | -Mostly | -Multicel | -Typicall | | lar | lular | multicell | unicellul | lular | y | | | | ular | ar | | single-ce | | -Can live | -Non-phot | | | -Photosyn | lled | | in | osyntheti | -Non-phot | \- Mostly | thetic | | | extreme | c | osyntheti | photosynt | | (E. coli) | | condition | | c | hetic | (Trees, | | | s | (Sponges, | | | flowers, | | | | mammals, | (Yeast, | (Algae, | etc.) | | | -Some of | etc.) | mushrooms | amoebas) | | | | first | | ) | | | | | living | | | | | | | organisms | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (Methanog | | | | | | | ens) | | | | | | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ 3. **Describe the properties of living things (metabolism, growth, reproduction, etc.)** The properties of living things determine which kingdom they are divided into. Some living things require photosynthesis for energy production (ex. Plants), whereas others don't. Other properties include single-celled or multi-celled, prokaryotic or eukaryotic (simple or complex), environment, movement, etc. 4. **List the environmental conditions necessary for life and explain why each is important.** - A source of energy, liquid water, and a reasonably stable environment. 5. **Define cell, tissue, organ, organ system and organism and explain the relationships among them.** The relationships together work as a lifecycle of sorts. Cells are the smallest, and work at a microscopic level. The cells form the tissues, which work together to form organs. The organs function together as part of the organ system (digestive/circulatory/etc.), and many organ systems made up an organism. 6. **Identify the organ systems of the human body and describe the general function of each organ system.** 1. Integumentary outer protection/physical barrier between the external and internal environments. 2. Skeletal structural 3. Muscular structural and movement 4. Nervous sending messages throughout the body 5. Endocrine responsible for hormones, metabolism (growth and development) 6. Cardiovascular circulate blood/oxygen throughout the body 7. Respiratory responsible for providing the body with oxygen and getting rid of CO2 8. Digestive nutrition absorption and waste removal 9. Urinary waste removal (excess glucose, minerals, etc.) through urine 10. Reproductive responsible for reproduction via egg and sperm cells, also responsible for menstruation, lactation. 11. Immune and Lymphatic aids in preventing infection/illness and fighting against ongoing infection/illness. 7. **Describe anatomical position and state its importance.** A diagram of a person\'s body Description automatically generated **Superior** above, over, toward the head **Inferior** below, under, further from the head **Anterior** in front, toward the front of the body **Posterior** behind, toward the back of the body **Proximal** closer to the attachment point of a limb to the trunk **Distal** further from the attachment point of a limb to the trunk. **Medial** toward the midline **Lateral** further from the midline **Intermediate** between two structures **Superficial** toward the surface of the body **Depp** toward the interior of the body 8. **Identify the anatomical body regions using proper scientific terminology.**  **1.9 Identify and describe the body planes.** A person\'s body with the same body Description automatically generated with medium confidence **Parasagittal** divides body/organ into left and right portions **Midsagittal** divides body/organ into equal left and right portion (through the midline) **Frontal section** divides body/organ into anterior and posterior parts (cuts off face from butt) **Transverse/cross-section** divides body/organ superior and inferior parts (head separated from the body). 10. **Identify the body cavities, quadrants, and abdominopelvic regions and the organs they contain.** A diagram of the internal organs of a person Description automatically generated 11. **Define homeostasis.** The stable internal environment (constant pH, BG levels, temperature) **1.12 Recognize feedback mechanisms and relate them to homeostasis.** **Negative Feedback Mechanism:** the response cancels or counteracts the original stimulus (stops whatever is happening to return to homeostasis). **Positive Feedback Mechanism:** the response increases the original stimulus (increases is to bring system back to homeostasis). **Unit 2: Biological Molecules** **2.1 Discuss the properties of water that make it an ideal universal solvent in living things.** **2.2     Describe how macromolecules are formed and broken down (dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis).** \- Macromolecules are made up of proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids/fats. **2.3     Describe the structure of proteins (amino acids, peptide bonds, levels of organization) and identify their functions in the human body.** **2.4     Describe the general structure of nucleic acids (components, nitrogenous bases, overall shape).** \- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A & T, C & G double helix hundreds of genes \- Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A & U, C & G singular helix made from DNA template **2.5     Describe the structure of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides) and identify their functions in the human body.** \- C:H:O ratio = 1:2:1 \- Simple carbs made of one or two monomers \- Complex carbs made up of polymers +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ***Monosaccharides*** | ***Disaccharides*** | ***Polysaccharides*** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | -Made of only 1 | -Made of 2 | -Made up of long | | monomer subunit | monosaccharides | polymer chains. | | (glucose). | (glucose + fructose) | | | | | \- Many C-H bonds so | | Glucose, galactose, | Maltose, lactose, | good for storing | | fructose | sucrose | energy. | | | | | | | \- ALWAYS made of | | | | glucose and | | | | \_\_\_\_\_\_\_. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **2.6     Describe the structure of lipids (saturated and unsaturated triglycerides, cholesterol and phospholipids) and identify their role in maintaining cell structure.** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ***Triglycerides*** | ***Cholesterol*** | ***Phospholipids*** | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | 3 fatty acids and 1 | \- Cell membranes | \- Found in cell | | glycerol backbone | | membranes. | | | \- Liver & brain | | | ends in carboxyl | cells | \- Two non-polar | | (-COOH) group | | fatty acid chains and | | | Produce steroid | a polar head that | | \- Saturated: fatty | hormones and bile, | contains a phosphate | | acid chains | helps transport fats | group. | | containing only | through the | | | single C-H bonds; | bloodstream. | | | solid at room temp. | | | | | HDL = good | | | \- Unsaturated: not | cholesterol | | | saturated in hydrogen | | | | atoms leads to C=C | LDL = bad cholesterol | | | bonds; liquid at room | | | | temp. | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Unit 3: Cell Structure and Function** **3.1 Outline the development of cell theory and discuss its importance to our understanding of living organisms.** \- Cells are small, and fundamentally important. \- Everything is made up of cells, from animal cells to plant cells. \- The largest human cell is the egg cell which is 100um. \- Cells can be large because they have special modifications to increase surface area such as microvilli or neurons. **3.2 Contrast the characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prokaryotic** | **Eukaryotic** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Simplest cellular organisms. | - Has nucleus. | | | | | - Lacks nucleus. | - Internal membrane-bound | | | compartments. | | - Does not have an extensive | | | system of internal membranes. | - All organisms other than | | | bacteria have eukaryotic | | - Plasma membrane surrounding a | cells. | | cytoplasm without interior | | | compartments. | - Much larger than prokaryotes. | | | | | - Simple organization including | - More complex cell structure | | cytoplasm, ribosomes, and | including phospholipid | | nucleoid region. | bilayer membrane, cytoplasm & | | | cytoskeleton, ribosomes, and | | - Sometimes have flagellum or | membrane-bound organelles. | | pilus for locomotion, | | | feeding, or genetic exchange. | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **3.3 Identify and state the function of each of the cellular organelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, peroxisomes, etc.)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Nucleus** | - Command center of the cell | | | | | | - Stores DNA | | | | | | - Bounded by a double-membrane | | | called a nuclear envelope | +===================================+===================================+ | **Endoplasmic Reticulum** | - System of internal membranes | | | | | | - Rough ER = protein synthesis | | | | | | - Smooth ER = manufacture carbs | | | and lipids | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Golgi Bodies** | - Collect, package, and | | | distribute molecules made in | | | the cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Mitochondria** | - Powerhouse of the cell. | | | | | | - Sites for chemical reactions | | | called Oxidative Metabolism. | | | | | | - Surrounded by two membranes. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Ribosomes** | - Composed of rRNA and protein. | | | | | | - NOT a membrane-bound | | | organelle. | | | | | | - Site of protein synthesis. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lysosomes** | - Produced by Golgi complex. | | | | | | - Digestive system of the cell. | | | | | | - Contain enzymes that the cell | | | uses to break down | | | macromolecules. | | | | | | - Wastes created by the cell | | | are packages in lysosomes and | | | excreted from the cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Peroxisomes** | - Break down long-chain fatty | | | acids which are used to make | | | ATP or myelin in the brain. | | | | | | - Used to break down toxic | | | substances such as alcohol in | | | the liver. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Centrioles** | - Involved in the production of | | | spindle fibres. | | | | | | - Separate chromosomes during | | | cell division. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Plasma Membrane** | - Forms boundary of the cell | | | and controls permeability of | | | the cell. | | | | | | - Cytoplasm fills the interior | | | of the cell. | | | | | | - Phospholipids arranges in a | | | bilayer; polar, hydrophilic | | | head on the outside, nonpolar | | | hydrophobic tails on the | | | inside. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **3.4 Identify and describe the functions of intracellular and extracellular proteins.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Intracellular Proteins** | **Extracellular Proteins** | +===================================+===================================+ | **- Cytoskeleton i**s made up of | **- Collagen** and **elastin** | | protein fibers such as: | form a protective layer over the | | | cell surface. | | - Actin filament | | | | \- **Fibronectin** connects the | | - Microtubule | ECM to plasma membrane, as well | | | as to integrins to extend into | | - Intermediate filament | the cytoplasm of the cell. | | | | | | **- Cell Junctions** connect | | | cells together and allow for | | | cells to communicate. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **3.5 Contrast hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic solutions and describe their roles in human physiology.** **Hypertonic** High solute concentration outside the cell which pulls water out of the cell to balance it out. ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Isotonic** Balanced solute concentration inside and outside of the cell. **Hypotonic** High solute concentration inside the cell which pulls water into the cell to balance it out. **3.6 Differentiate between various forms of transport across the cell membrane and give examples of how each is used in cellular metabolism (active and passive transport, diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport, etc.)** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Osmosis** | - No energy required. | | | | | | - Diffusion of water across a | | | semi-permeable membrane to an | | | area of low water conc. (high | | | solute conc). | +===================================+===================================+ | **Diffusion** | - No energy required. | | | | | | - Molecules move from an area | | | of high conc. to low conc. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Facilitated Diffusion** | - No energy required. | | | | | | - Movement of molecules across | | | a cell membrane and down a | | | concentration gradient with | | | the help of a membrane | | | protein. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Sodium-Potassium Pump** | - Energy required. | | | | | | - To generate a concentration | | | gradient with more Na+ | | | outside the cell than inside. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Proton Pump** | - Energy required. | | | | | | - Moves protons against their | | | concentration gradient. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Coupled Transport** | - Energy required. | | | | | | - The process of a single | | | carrier protein moving two | | | substances at the same time. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Exocytosis & Endocytosis** | - Energy required. | | | | | | - EXO = move substances out = | | | discharge of substances out | | | of the cell from the vesicles | | | at the inner surface of the | | | cell. | | | | | | - ENDO = move substances in = | | | engulfing substances outside | | | of the cell via the formation | | | of a vesicle to be brought | | | inside the cell. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Unit 4: Cellular Metabolism** **4.1 Define metabolism and describe the role of ATP in cell metabolism.** \- Metabolism is the chemical reactions in the body that change food into energy. \- Energy is needed for the cells to function properly, including when undergoing cellular metabolism. \- ATP can be formed by breaking C-H bonds. **4.2  Explain the importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in cellular respiration.** \- LEO = loss of electrons = Oxidation \- GER = gain of electrons = Reduction \- Are important in cellular respiration because the electrons and hydrogen atoms are moved from one molecule to another to create ATP. **4.3  Describe the stages of aerobic respiration and state where in the cell each occurs.** Aerobic respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 36 ATP 1. **Glycolysis** - Occurs in the cytoplasm. - Does not require oxygen to generate ATP. - Breaks down glucose molecules into 2 PYRUVATE molecules. 2. **Pyruvate Oxidation** - Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. - Pyruvate molecules diffuse through mitochondrial membranes into the matrix. - One carbon is removed from each pyruvate molecule to form CO2 which leaves behind acetyl co-enzyme A. 3. **Krebs Cycle** - Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. - Acetyl-coA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. - Harvests energy-rich electrons and protons (NADH) through a cycle of oxidation reactions. - Electrons passed to an electron transport chain. 4. **Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis** - Occurs in the cristae (inner membrane folds) of the mitochondria. - Electrons from NADH and FADH2 power the production of ATP. 4. **Contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Aerobic Respiration** | **Anerobic Respiration** | +===================================+===================================+ | \- Oxygen present | \- Oxygen absent | | | | | \- 4 main stages used to produce | \- Must rely on glycolysis to | | ATP | produce ATP | | | | | | \- Pyruvate from glycolysis is | | | turned into lactate through | | | fermentation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Unit 5: Cellular Reproduction** **5.1     Contrast the two types of nucleic acids found in the human cell.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)** | **RNA (ribonucleic acid)** | +===================================+===================================+ | \- Double helix | \- Single helix | | | | | \- Two base pairs possible: | \- Two base pairs possible: | | | | | \- A & T (2 H bonds) | \- A & U (2 H bonds) | | | | | \- C & G (3 H bonds) | \- C & G (3 H bonds) | | | | | \- Each strand of DNA contains | \- All OH | | the same information | | | (complimentary strands) but run | | | in opposite directions | | | (anti-parallel). | | | | | | \- One singular H | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **5.2     Summarize the process and outcome of DNA replication.** - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - **Overall Outcome:** - **5.3     Describe the stages, the importance and the outcome of mitosis.** 1. - - - 2. - - - - 3. - - 4. - 5. - - - 6. - **5.4     Compare the regulation of the cell cycle in normal cells and cancer cells.** \- Cancer cells are up-regulated, *oncogenes*, which increase the rate of the cell cycle. \- They do not undergo cell death and are immortalized, they spread to different regions of the body (*metastasis*), and cause growth of new blood vessels to access more nutrients. **5.5     Describe the processes of transcription and translation of nucleic acids.** **1. Transcription: DNA to mRNA** Transcription is the process by which an RNA copy of a specific segment of DNA is made. This RNA copy is called messenger RNA (mRNA), which serves as a template for protein synthesis in the next step (translation). Transcription occurs in the nucleus in eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm in prokaryotes. **Steps of Transcription:** - **Initiation:** - Transcription begins when an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of the gene, known as the promoter. - The DNA strands unwind, and RNA polymerase separates them, creating an open region called the transcription bubble. - The RNA polymerase then starts adding RNA nucleotides that are complementary to the DNA template strand. - **Elongation:** - RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template strand, synthesizing the RNA transcript in the 5\' to 3\' direction. - As the polymerase progresses, the RNA strand grows longer, and the DNA strands re-anneal behind it. - **Termination:** - In eukaryotes, transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches a termination sequence in the DNA. In prokaryotes, termination is often facilitated by the formation of a hairpin loop in the RNA. - Once transcription is complete, the mRNA is released from the RNA polymerase, and the DNA rewinds into its double-helix structure. The result of transcription is a single-stranded mRNA molecule, which is a complimentary copy of the DNA template (with uracil, \"U\", replacing thymine, \"T\"). **2. Translation: mRNA to Protein** Translation is the process by which the mRNA produced in transcription is used as a template to synthesize proteins. This occurs in the cytoplasm in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes and involves the ribosome, transfer RNA (tRNA), and amino acids. **Steps of Translation:** - **Initiation:** - The mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome, and the first tRNA molecule, carrying an amino acid (usually methionine in eukaryotes), binds to the start codon (AUG) on the mRNA. - The large ribosomal subunit then binds to form a complete ribosome. - **Elongation:** - The ribosome moves along the mRNA in the 5\' to 3\' direction, reading each codon (a sequence of three nucleotides) on the mRNA. - Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid. The tRNA molecules, which are \"charged\" with amino acids, bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome. - The ribosome facilitates the formation of peptide bonds between the amino acids, elongating the growing polypeptide chain. This process continues as the ribosome moves along the mRNA. - **Termination:** - Translation ends when the ribosome encounters a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on the mRNA. - Release factors bind to the ribosome, causing the release of the polypeptide chain from the tRNA and the dissociation of the ribosome from the mRNA. - The newly synthesized polypeptide chain then folds into its functional three-dimensional structure to become a protein. Result: The result of translation is a polypeptide chain, which folds into a functional protein. This protein may undergo additional modifications (such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, etc.) to become fully functional. **Summary of the Two Processes:** - **Transcription:** DNA → mRNA (in the nucleus, in eukaryotes). - **Translation:** mRNA → Protein (in the cytoplasm, involving ribosomes and tRNA). Together, transcription and translation allow the genetic information stored in DNA to be used to produce the proteins that carry out all of the essential functions in a cell. **Unit 6: Genetic Inheritance** **6.1     Describe the stages, the importance and the outcome of meiosis.** **Stages of Meiosis I:** 1. Prophase I: homologues pair up and exchange segments. 2. Metaphase I: the paired homologous chromosomes align at the equatorial plate. 3. Anaphase I: homologues separate from the pairing and move to opposite poles. 4. Telophase I: individual chromosomes gather at each of the two poles. **Stages of Meiosis II:** 1. Prophase II: after a brief interphase with no DNA replication, new spindle fibres will form. 2. Metaphase II: the sister chromatids align at the equatorial plane. 3. Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate from the pairing and move to opposite poles. 4. Telophase II: individual chromosomes gather at each of the two poles, and a new nuclear envelope forms. The importance of Meiosis is the genetic variation that comes from it. It is able to produce new cells, such as one haploid egg, or 4 haploid sperm cells. **6.2     Define relevant terminology including: allele, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, polygenic, and pleiotropic. ** - **Allele:** two copies of every gene where one comes from each parent (ex. 23 pairs of chromosomes); They make up our genotypes (BB, Bb, bb...) - **Homozygous:** when two alleles are identical, 2 of the same (BB, bb). - **Heterozygous:** when two alleles are NOT identical, the 2 alleles are different (Bb). - **Phenotype:** the trait expressed by the genotypes that are present (ex. BB = brown hair, Bb = brown hair, bb = blonde hair). - **Polygenic:** results in the continuous variation of genes, can show a range of small differences when many genes code for it (height, skin colour, body weight). - **Pleiotropic:** a gene that may produce more than one result. **6.3     Describe the development of Mendelian and molecular genetics.** \- Mendel began to study pea plants in the 1800s; in particular he studied the phenotypes of generations of pea plants. \- He began to note distinct phenotypes in the pea plants: \- Purple or white flowers \- Yellow or green seeds \- Wrinkled or round seeds \- Tall or short plants \- Over time he began to cross-fertilize particular pea plants with different traits and studied the phenotypes of the resulting offspring. \- He knew that some plants were "true-breeding" due to the alleles for some traits were the same discovery of homozygous and heterozygous). \- He experimented with a variety of traits and repeatedly made the same observations. \- Over time he noticed that some traits disappeared in the F1 generation just to reappear in the F2 generation (discovery of dominant and recessive traits). **6.4     Use Mendelian genetics and Punnett squares to predict the probability of various traits and genetic disorders with different modes of inheritance.** BbDd / bbDd BD Bd bD bd ------------- ------ ------ ------ ------ bD BbDD BbDd bbDD bbDd bd BbDd Bbdd bbDd Bbdd bD BbDD BbDd bbDD bbDd bd BbDd Bbdd bbDd bbdd **6.5     Summarize Non-Mendelian inheritance and discuss some resulting phenotypic expressions.** **Non-Mendelian Inheritance:** sometimes there is not always a dominant VS recessive pattern to inheritance which goes against what Mendel theorized. ***Continuous variation:*** a trait can show a range of small differences when many genes code for it (height, skin colour, body weight, etc.). ***Incomplete dominance:*** the two alleles produce a heterozygous phenotype that is an intermediate between those of the parents (red flowers X white flowers = pink flowers). ***Codominance:*** when both the alleles are expressed (AB blood type). ***Epistasis:*** the effects of one gene are modified by one or more genes (how yellow labs comes to be when two recessive alleles are both present). ***Environmental Factors:*** the degree to which many alleles are expressed depends on the environment they find themselves in (some alleles are heat sensitive, such as arctic foxes who turn brown in the summer, and white in the winter). ***X-linked:*** some alleles are only expressed or passed on by the X-chromosome, which makes them much more common in men since they only have 1 X-chromosome, and therefore it is the only X-chromosome a male can express, whereas women have 2 which makes them more commonly a carrier of the disease, rather than them expressing it (colourblindness, hemophilia). ***Linkage:*** the tendency of genes located close together on a chromosome to be inherited together rather than being split apart; the further two genes are from each other on the same chromosome, the less likely they are to be linked and are more likely that they will be separated by crossing over during meiosis. **Unit 7: Tissues** **7.1     Name the four basic types of tissue and state the main functions of each.** **Epithelial Tissue** Boundaries, control of movement of materials ----------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- **Connective Tissue** Support, protection, transport, energy storage, defense **Muscular Tissue** Movement **Nervous Tissue** Communication **\ ** **Unit 8: Integumentary System** 1. **    Describe the main functions of the integumentary system.** - Protection: acts as a physical barrier to protect from damage, UV radiation, chemicals, pathogens. - Temperature regulation: allows for sweating or restriction to preserve body heat. - Sensation: detects stimuli such as touch, pressure, pain, temperature. - Excretion: excretes small amounts of waste through sweat (salts, urea, metabolic waste). - Vitamin D Synthesis; Prevents water loss. 2. **Name and describe the layers (epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis) of the integumentary system and the functions of each layer.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Epidermis (Outer Layer)** | \- The outermost layer of the | | | skin, primarily made up | | | of keratinocytes, which produce | | | the protein keratin that helps | | | protect the skin and underlying | | | tissues. | | | | | | \- The epidermis is avascular | | | (lacks blood vessels) and | | | receives nutrients via diffusion | | | from the underlying dermis. | | | | | | \- Made up of the: | +===================================+===================================+ | **Dermis (Middle Layer)** | \- Lies beneath the epidermis and | | | is much thicker. It is made up | | | of **connective tissue** and | | | contains blood vessels, nerve | | | endings, hair follicles, and | | | glands. | | | | | | \- The dermis provides the skin | | | with strength, elasticity, and | | | flexibility. | | | | | | \- Made up of the: | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hypodermis (Subcutaneous | \- The **hypodermis** is the | | Layer)** | deepest layer of the skin, | | | located beneath the dermis. It is | | | primarily composed of **adipose | | | tissue** (fat cells) and **loose | | | connective tissue**. | | | | | | \- The hypodermis serves several | | | key functions: | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ ** 3. **Compare and contrast the epithelial layer of thick skin and thin skin.** **[Feature]** **[Thick Skin]** **[Thin Skin]** --------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------- **Thickness of Epidermis** Thicker (up to several mm) Thinner (less than 1mm) **Stratum Corneum** Thicker with more layers of dead cells Thinner with fewer layers **Stratum Lucidum** Present Absent **Stratum Granulosum/Spinosum** Thicker and more defined Thinner and less prominent **Hair Follicles** Absent Present **Sweat Glands** Numerous and abundant Present but less dense **Location** Palms, soles, fingertips Most of the body including face and limbs **Function** Protection from friction and abrasion Flexibility and sensory functions. 4. **Identify and describe the functions of glands and other structures located in the integumentary system.** 1. **Sebaceous Glands:** oil glands; sebum = oily substance; produces blackheads and whiteheads. 2. **Sudoriferous Glands:** sweat glands eccrine & apocrine. 3. **Modified Sweat Glands:** ceruminous glands, mammary glands. 5. **Describe the effects of aging on the integumentary system.** - Effects of aging are mostly caused by decreased collagen and elastin synthesis, dryness from decreased sebaceous gland activity, and environmental factors, such as pollution and excessive sun exposure. **Unit 9: Skeletal System** **9.1     List the functions of the skeletal system.** \- Support & structural framework \- Movement \- Protection \- Storage of minerals and lipids \- Blood cell production \- Hearing (small ear bones) **9.2     Distinguish between compact and spongy bone.** **Compact bone:** organized osteons; make up the bulk of the diaphysis in long bones, offers protection, support, and resistance to external stressors. **Spongy bone:** "trabecular" bone & less organized; short, flat, irregular bones and epiphysis; lighter in weight; makes up red bone marrow; trabeculae follow lines of stress. **9.3     Describe the types of bone cells and how they contribute to bone homeostasis.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Osteoblasts** | - Bone building cells secrete | | | matrix | | | | | | - Located mainly just deep | | | enough to the periosteum. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Osteoclasts** | - Bone destroying cells break | | | down the matrix to release | | | minerals to the rest of the | | | body. | | | | | | - Located mainly under the | | | endosteum. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Osteocytes** | - Mature bone cells trapped in | | | the matrix. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **9.4     Identify and locate the bones of the axial and appendicular skeletons.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Axial Skeleton System** | **Appendicular Skeleton System** | | | | | | **(appendicular = appendage)** | +===================================+===================================+ | \- Made up of 80 bones | \- Made up of 126 bones | | | | | **Skull** | **Pectoral Girdle** (4 bones) | | | | | - Cranium (8 bones) | - Clavicle | | | | | - Face (14 bones) | - Scapula | | | | | **Hyoid** (1 bone) | **Upper Limbs** (60 bones) | | | | | **Auditory Ossicles** (6 bones) | - Humerus | | | | | **Vertebral Column** (26 bones) | - Ulna | | | | | **Thorax** | - Radius | | | | | - Sternum (1 bone) | - Wrist bones (carpals) | | | | | - Ribs (24 bones) | - Bones of the hand | | | (metacarpals and phalanges) | | | | | | **Pelvic Girdle** | | | | | | - Hip or pelvic bone (2 bones) | | | | | | **Lower Limbs** (60 bones) | | | | | | - Femur | | | | | | - Patella | | | | | | - Fibula | | | | | | - Tibia | | | | | | - Ankle bones (tarsals) | | | | | | - Bones of the feet | | | (metatarsals and phalanges) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **9.5     Classify the bones of the skeletal system (long, short, flat, irregular) and provide examples of each.** +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Long** | \- Long with expanded | Arm & leg bones | | | ends | (femur, ulna, radius) | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | **Short** | \- Almost equal in | Bones of the wrist | | | length and width | and ankles (carpals | | | | and tarsals) | | | \- Sesamoid (round) | | | | bones: small, nodular | \- Patella | | | bone that develops | | | | within a tendon | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Flat** | \- Plate-like shape | Ribs, scapula, | | | with broad surface | flattened skull bones | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Irregular** | \- Varied shape | Vertebrae, some | | | | facial bones | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **9.6     Classify joints structurally and functionally.** \- Joints can be classified based on their degree of movement: 1. Immovable *(syndesmosis)* 2. Slightly movable *(amphiarthrosis*) 3. Freely movable *(diarthrosis*) \- Joints can also be classified by the type of tissue that binds them together: 1. **Fibrous:** composed of dense, irregular connective tissue. 2. **Cartilaginous:** composed of fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage. 3. **Synovial:** having a complex structure. a. **Plane/Planer**: articulating surfaces are flat and the bones glid back and forth, side to side, or rotate (joints between carpals/tarsals). b. **Hinge:** convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another (elbow, knees, ankles). c. **Pivot:** a round or pointed surface of one bone fits into a ring formed by another bone and a ligament (atlanto-axial and radioulnar joints connecting radius & ulna). d. **Condyloid:** the oval projection of one bone fits into an oval cavity of another (wrist joint, metacarpophalangeal joints of the 2^nd^ to 5^th^ digits). e. **Saddle:** the articular surface of one bone is shaped like a saddle, and the other bone fits into the saddle like a sitting rider (carpometacarpal joint between the trapezium and the metacarpal of the thumb). f. **Ball-and-Socket:** the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cuplike depression of another (shoulder and hip joints). **Unit 10: Muscular System** **10.1     List and describe the main functions of muscles and the muscular system.** \- Produces body movements. \- Stabilizes body position and posture. \- Enables movement of internal organs. \- Regulates blood flow. \- Produces heat. **10.2     Distinguish among smooth, skeletal and cardiac muscle.** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | **Cardiac | **Smooth | **Skeletal | | | Muscle** | Muscle** | Muscle** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | **Location** | Heart | Blood vessels, | Connected to | | | | digestive | bones or skin, | | | | tract, | some sphincters | | | | bronchial | | | | | tubes, some | | | | | sphincters, | | | | | iris | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Nervous | Involuntary | Involuntary | Voluntary | | System | | | | | Control** | Autonomic | Autonomic | Somatic Nervous | | | Nervous System | Nervous System | System | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Cell | Branched, | Small cells | Long, parallel | | Structure** | connected with | with tapered | cells that | | | intercalated | ends; can | function as | | | discs | function as a | small or large | | | containing | single cell or | motor units | | | desmosomes and | multi-unit | | | | gap junctions | group of cells | | | | | connected by | | | | | gap junctions | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Nuclei** | 1 -- 3 nuclei | 1 nucleus per | Multinucleated | | | per cell | cell | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Striated** | Yes | No | Yes | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Diameter of | Intermediate | Small | Large, | | fibres** | | | intermediate, | | | | | and small | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Speed of | Intermediate | Very slow | Fast, | | contraction** | | | intermediate, | | | | | and slow | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **10.3     Distinguish among prime movers (agonists), antagonists, synergists, and fixators.** **10.4     Define the terms origin, insertion and action as they relate to muscles.** **- Origin:** the end of the muscle that attaches to the stationary bone. **- Insertion:** the end of the muscle attached to the movable bone. **- Belly:** the middle of the muscle. **10.7     Describe the physiology of muscle contraction, including events at the neuromuscular junction, excitation-contraction coupling, and the cross-bridge cycle.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Neuromuscular Junction** | The neuromuscular junction is the | | | synapse between a motor neuron | | | and a muscle fiber. It is where | | | the electrical signal from the | | | motor neuron is translated into a | | | chemical signal that stimulates | | | muscle contraction. | | | | | | - **Action Potential in Motor | | | Neuron:** A motor neuron | | | receives an action potential, | | | which travels down the axon | | | toward the neuromuscular | | | junction. | | | | | | - **Release of Acetylcholine | | | (ACh):** When the action | | | potential reaches the axon | | | terminal, it causes | | | voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) | | | channels to open. Calcium | | | enters the axon terminal, | | | triggering the release of the | | | neurotransmitter | | | acetylcholine (ACh) into the | | | synaptic cleft. | | | | | | - **Binding of ACh to | | | Receptors:** ACh diffuses | | | across the synaptic cleft and | | | binds to nicotinic | | | acetylcholine receptors on | | | the muscle fiber\'s | | | sarcolemma (muscle cell | | | membrane). | | | | | | - **Depolarization of Muscle | | | Fiber:** The binding of ACh | | | opens ligand-gated ion | | | channels, allowing sodium | | | ions (Na⁺) to flow into the | | | muscle cell. This depolarizes | | | the muscle membrane, | | | generating an action | | | potential on the sarcolemma. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Excitation-Contraction | Excitation-contraction coupling | | Coupling** | is the process by which an action | | | potential on the muscle membrane | | | leads to the contraction of the | | | muscle fiber. | | | | | | - **Transmission of Action | | | Potential:** The action | | | potential spreads along the | | | sarcolemma and into the | | | muscle fiber through the | | | transverse tubules | | | (T-tubules). | | | | | | - **Calcium Release from | | | Sarcoplasmic Reticulum | | | (SR):** The action potential | | | travels down the T-tubules | | | and reaches the triads | | | (junctions between T-tubules | | | and the sarcoplasmic | | | reticulum). This triggers the | | | opening of voltage-gated | | | calcium channels in the SR, | | | releasing calcium ions (Ca²⁺) | | | into the cytoplasm | | | (sarcoplasm). | | | | | | - **Calcium Binding to | | | Troponin:** The released | | | calcium binds to the troponin | | | complex on the thin filament | | | (actin). This causes a | | | conformational change in | | | troponin, which moves | | | tropomyosin away from the | | | myosin-binding sites on | | | actin. | | | | | | - **Exposure of Myosin-Binding | | | Sites:** With the | | | myosin-binding sites on actin | | | exposed, the muscle fiber is | | | ready for contraction. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Cross-Bridge Cycle** | The cross-bridge cycle is the | | | series of molecular events that | | | occurs between the thick filament | | | (myosin) and the thin filament | | | (actin) that results in muscle | | | contraction. | | | | | | - **Attachment of Myosin to | | | Actin:** Myosin heads, which | | | are energized by the | | | hydrolysis of ATP into ADP | | | and inorganic phosphate (Pi), | | | bind to the exposed | | | myosin-binding sites on actin | | | to form a \"cross-bridge.\" | | | | | | - **Power Stroke:** Once the | | | myosin head is attached to | | | actin, the release of ADP and | | | Pi causes the myosin head to | | | pivot, pulling the actin | | | filament toward the center of | | | the sarcomere. This is known | | | as the \"power stroke\" and | | | shortens the sarcomere, | | | leading to muscle | | | contraction. | | | | | | - **Release of Myosin from | | | Actin:** A new ATP molecule | | | binds to the myosin head, | | | causing a conformational | | | change in myosin that reduces | | | its affinity for actin, | | | leading to the detachment of | | | the myosin head from the | | | actin filament. | | | | | | - **Re-cocking of Myosin | | | Head:** The hydrolysis of ATP | | | into ADP and Pi re-energizes | | | the myosin head, causing it | | | to \"cock\" back into its | | | high-energy state. The myosin | | | head is now ready to bind to | | | actin again if calcium is | | | still present and | | | myosin-binding sites are | | | exposed. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Unit 11: Nervous System** **11.1 List and describe the main functions of the nervous system.** \- Detecting sensory stimuli/ \- Analyzing and integrating sensory information. \- Responding to internal and external stimuli. \- Regulating organ systems (homeostasis). \- Reflexes rapid, unconscious responses to stimuli. \- Learning, memory, and emotions. **11.2     Identify the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system and discuss their functions.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Central Nervous System** | **Components:** The CNS consists | | | of the brain and the spinal cord. | | | | | | **Function:** | | | | | | - **Brain:** The brain is | | | responsible for processing | | | sensory information, | | | controlling motor functions, | | | regulating bodily functions | | | (e.g., heart rate, | | | breathing), and enabling | | | cognition, emotion, and | | | memory. | | | | | | - **Spinal Cord:** The spinal | | | cord serves as a | | | communication pathway between | | | the brain and the rest of the | | | body. It also controls reflex | | | actions and contains neural | | | circuits for motor and | | | sensory processing. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Peripheral Nervous System** | **Components**: The PNS consists | | | of all the nerves that lie | | | outside the CNS, including | | | cranial nerves, spinal nerves, | | | and their branches. It also | | | includes sensory and motor | | | neurons. | | | | | | **Function**: | | | | | | - **Sensory Function**: It | | | carries sensory information | | | from the sensory organs (such | | | as the skin, eyes, and ears) | | | to the CNS. | | | | | | - **Motor Function**: It | | | transmits motor commands from | | | the CNS to muscles and | | | glands. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Somatic** | **Function**: Controls voluntary | | | movements of skeletal muscles and | | | conveys sensory information from | | | the sensory organs to the CNS. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Autonomic (ANS)** | **Function**: Controls | | | involuntary functions, such as | | | heart rate, digestion, | | | respiratory rate, and the | | | function of glands. The ANS is | | | further divided into: | | | | | | - **Sympathetic Nervous | | | System**: Prepares the body | | | for \"fight or flight\" | | | responses during stress or | | | danger (e.g., increasing | | | heart rate, dilating pupils). | | | | | | - **Parasympathetic Nervous | | | System**: Promotes \"rest and | | | digest\" responses, | | | conserving energy and | | | maintaining normal bodily | | | functions (e.g., lowering | | | heart rate, stimulating | | | digestion). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **11.3     Distinguish between neurons and nerves.** **[Feature]** **[Neurons]** **[Nerves]** --------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------- **Definition** Individual nerve cells that transmit electrical impulses. Bundles of axons from multiple neurons, wrapped in connective tissue. **Structure** Consist of a cell body, dendrites, and axon. Consist of bundled axons, connective tissue, and blood vessels. **Function** Transmit electrical signals (action potentials) for communication. Carry nerve impulses between the CNS and the body. **Location** Found in both the CNS and PNS. Found only in the PNS, connecting the CAN to the body. **Type** Can be sensory, motor, or interneurons. Can be sensory, motor, or mixed. **Size** Individual cells, vary in size. Larger structure composed of multiple neurons' axons. **Example** A single sensory or motor neuron. A nerve like the sciatic nerve or the optic nerve. **11.4     Describe a neuron and discuss the functions of each of its specialized structures.** **Cell Body (Soma)**: Metabolic center; contains the nucleus and organelles; integrates incoming signals. **Dendrites**: Receive electrical signals from other neurons or sensory receptors. **Axon**: Transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body. **Myelin Sheath**: Insulates the axon and increases the speed of signal transmission. **Nodes of Ranvier**: Facilitate rapid signal conduction through saltatory conduction. **Axon Terminals**: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons or cells. **Synapse**: The junction where neurons communicate with each other or with effector cells. **11.6     Describe the locations and roles of glial cells.** **CNS** ---------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Astrocytes** Support neurons, regulate extracellular environment, maintain the blood-brain barrier. **Oligodendrocytes** Myelinate axons, support axonal function. **Microglia** Immune defense, phagocytosis, inflammation. **Ependymal Cells** Produce and circulate CSF, form a barrier. **PNS** **Schwann Cells** Myelinate peripheral axons, support regeneration. **Satellite Cells** Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, provide support. **11.7     Discuss the importance of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining resting membrane potential in the neuron.** - **Creates and maintains the ionic gradients** of sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) across the membrane, essential for the RMP. - Contributes to the **electrical potential** of the neuron by pumping more sodium out than potassium in, leading to a net negative charge inside the cell. - Prevents the dissipation of the ion gradients caused by the **leakage of ions**, ensuring the neuron remains ready to fire action potentials. - Supports the **neuron\'s excitability** and ability to respond to stimuli, which is crucial for neuronal signaling and communication. Without the sodium-potassium pump, the resting membrane potential would quickly diminish, and neurons would lose their ability to generate action potentials and properly communicate with each other. Thus, the pump is fundamental for both the resting state and the dynamic function of neurons. **11.8     Describe the process of generating a nerve impulse.t** 1. **Resting state**: Neuron is at its resting membrane potential, maintained by the sodium-potassium pump. 2. **Stimulus**: A stimulus depolarizes the neuron to the threshold potential. 3. **Depolarization**: Voltage-gated sodium channels open, Na⁺ ions flood into the cell, and the membrane potential becomes more positive. 4. **Repolarization**: Sodium channels close, potassium channels open, and K⁺ ions flow out, restoring the negative membrane potential. 5. **Hyperpolarization**: The membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting potential briefly. 6. **Restoration**: The sodium-potassium pump restores the resting membrane potential. 7. **Refractory period**: The neuron enters a refractory period during which it cannot fire another action potential until it has reset. **11.9     Compare and contrast a graded potential and an action potential.** **Action Potential** **Graded Potential** ------------------------------ ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------ **Strength (Amplitude)** Maintained Decreases **Direction** Unidirectional Multi-directional **Relative Speed** Relatively fast Relatively slow **Location in Neuron** Axon Dendrites, soma (cell body), unmyelinated axon **Location in Body** Mainly PNS Mainly CNS **Distance Travelled** Long Short **Refractory Period** Absolute and Relative None **Excitatory or Inhibitory** Excitatory only Excitatory or inhibitory **11.10     Describe the transmission of a nerve impulse across a synapse.** **1. Arrival of the Action Potential** - The nerve impulse, in the form of an **action potential**, travels along the **axon** of the presynaptic neuron until it reaches the **axon terminal** (synaptic terminal) at the synapse. **2. Depolarization of the Presynaptic Membrane** - The arrival of the action potential at the axon terminal causes the **membrane** to depolarize, opening **voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels** in the presynaptic membrane. - Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) flow **into the axon terminal** from the extracellular fluid, following their concentration gradient. **3. Neurotransmitter Release** - The influx of Ca²⁺ ions triggers the fusion of **synaptic vesicles** (small sacs containing neurotransmitters) with the presynaptic membrane. - These vesicles release their contents into the **synaptic cleft**, the small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons, through a process called **exocytosis**. - Neurotransmitters, such as **acetylcholine**, **dopamine**, or **serotonin**, are released into the synaptic cleft. **4. Binding to Receptors on the Postsynaptic Membrane** - The released neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptors on the **postsynaptic membrane** (on the dendrites or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron). - The type of receptor determines the effect on the postsynaptic cell, as some receptors cause **depolarization**(excitatory) and others cause **hyperpolarization** (inhibitory). **5. Generation of Postsynaptic Potential** - If the neurotransmitter binding leads to **depolarization**, it can trigger an **excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)**, making the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire an action potential. - If the neurotransmitter causes **hyperpolarization**, it generates an **inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)**, making it less likely for the postsynaptic neuron to fire. **6. Termination of Signal** - The action of the neurotransmitter is terminated in several ways: - **Enzymatic degradation**: Some neurotransmitters are broken down by enzymes (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine). - **Reuptake**: Other neurotransmitters are taken back up into the presynaptic neuron through transporter proteins. - **Diffusion**: Neurotransmitters can simply diffuse away from the synaptic cleft. **7. Repolarization of the Presynaptic Neuron** - After the neurotransmitter is released and the signal is transmitted, the presynaptic neuron repolarizes to return to its resting membrane potential, ready for the next action potential. **8. Postsynaptic Response** - If the postsynaptic potential reaches a threshold, an **action potential** is generated in the postsynaptic neuron and propagates down its axon, continuing the signal transmission. **11.11     Describe the general structure of the brain.** 1. **Cerebrum** (largest part of the brain, responsible for higher functions like thought, sensory processing, and voluntary movement) 2. **Diencephalon** (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, subthalamus) 3. **Brainstem** (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata) 4. **Cerebellum** (coordination, balance, motor control) **11.12     Relate the functional regions of the brain to its general structure.** 1. The **cerebrum** (divided into lobes) is responsible for higher cognitive functions (thinking, decision-making), sensory processing, and motor control. 2. The **cerebellum** ensures smooth coordination of movements and balance. 3. The **brainstem** controls basic life functions such as heartbeat, respiration, and alertness. 4. The **limbic system** processes emotions, memory, and autonomic functions. 5. The **basal ganglia** control voluntary movement and contribute to learning. **11.13     Describe the general structure and function of the spinal cord.** The spinal cord is divided into **31 segments**, each corresponding to a pair of spinal nerves that emerge from the cord. - **Cervical (C1-C8)**: Serves the neck, arms, and diaphragm. - **Thoracic (T1-T12)**: Serves the chest and abdominal muscles. - **Lumbar (L1-L5)**: Serves the lower back and legs. - **Sacral (S1-S5)**: Serves the pelvic region and legs. - **Coccygeal (Co1)**: A small region at the end of the spinal cord. **Sensory Function**: - The spinal cord receives sensory input from the body through sensory neurons. This information is transmitted to the brain for processing. For example, the spinal cord transmits signals related to touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception (sense of body position). **Motor Function**: - The spinal cord sends motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands. It controls voluntary movements like walking, as well as involuntary actions such as reflexes. **Reflexes**: - The spinal cord is responsible for many **reflexes**, which are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli. These reflexes bypass the brain for speed. For example, if you touch something hot, a reflex will cause your hand to pull away before the pain is even consciously perceived. **Autonomic Function**: - The spinal cord also plays a role in regulating autonomic functions, such as heart rate, digestion, and blood pressure. The sympathetic and parasympathetic components of the autonomic nervous system are partially mediated by the spinal cord. **11.14     Discuss some protective mechanisms of the central nervous system (meninges, CSF, blood-brain barrier).** 1. **Meninges** provide structural protection and help in nutrient exchange. 2. **Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)** offers cushioning, maintains chemical stability, and helps with waste removal. 3. **Blood-brain barrier (BBB)** ensures selective permeability, protecting the brain from harmful substances while allowing essential nutrients to pass through. **11.15     Explain a Reflex Arc.** A reflex arc is the neural pathway that controls a reflex action, which is an automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus. It involves the rapid transmission of signals through the nervous system to produce a quick, almost instantaneous reaction, often to protect the body from harm. One common example is the withdrawal reflex when you touch something hot: - **Stimulus:** Your hand touches a hot surface. - **Receptor:** Pain receptors in your skin detect the heat. - **Sensory Neuron:** The pain signal travels along a sensory neuron to the spinal cord. - **Integration Center:** The spinal cord processes the information and immediately sends a signal via an interneuron to a motor neuron. - **Motor Neuron:** The motor neuron sends the signal to the muscles in your arm. - **Effector:** The muscles in your arm contract, pulling your hand away from the hot surface. **Unit 12: Cardiovascular System** **12.1     Describe the functions of the cardiovascular system.** \- Transportation: oxygen, CO2, nutrients, waste, hormones. \- Regulation: temperature (vasoconstriction & vasodilation), blood pressure in tissues (vasoconstriction & vasodilation). \- Protection: blood clotting, immune cells. **12.2     Identify the major components of blood and state the main functions of each.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Cells** | Leukocytes: white blood cells to | | | help defend the body against | | | disease and fight infection. | | | | | | Erythrocytes: red blood cells | | | that carry O2 and CO2 where it | | | needs to go. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Platelets** | \- Used to stop bleeding if a | | | blood vessel is damaged. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Plasma** | \- Made up of water, ions, | | | vitamins, nutrients, hormones, | | | plasma proteins, dissolved O2 and | | | CO2, and waste products | | | transports where they are needed. | | | | | | \- Makes up 55-58% of total blood | | | volume. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **12.3     Discuss ABO blood types and their significance in transfusions.** **Antigen** **Antibody** **Can receive blood from** **Can donate blood to** -------- ---------------- ------------------- ---------------------------- ------------------------- **A** A antigens Anti-B antibodies A, O A, AB **B** B antigens Anti-A antibodies B, O B, AB **AB** A & B antigens No antibodies A, B, AB, O AB **O** No antigens A & B antibodies O A, B, AD, O **12.4     Describe the structure and function of the heart chambers and associated blood vessels.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Heart Chambers** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Right Atrium** | **Structure**: The right atrium | | | is a thin-walled chamber located | | | at the upper right side of the | | | heart. | | | | | | **Function**: It | | | receives deoxygenated blood from | | | the body via two large veins: | | | the superior vena cava (from the | | | upper body) and the inferior vena | | | cava (from the lower body). The | | | right atrium contracts, pushing | | | the blood through the tricuspid | | | valve into the right ventricle. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Right Ventricle** | **Structure**: The right | | | ventricle is a thicker-walled | | | chamber located below the right | | | atrium. It has a large cavity | | | that receives blood from the | | | right atrium. | | | | | | **Function**: When the right | | | ventricle contracts (during | | | the systole phase), it pumps | | | deoxygenated blood through | | | the pulmonary valve into | | | the pulmonary arteries, which | | | carry it to the lungs for | | | oxygenation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Left Atrium** | **Structure**: The left atrium is | | | a thin-walled chamber on the | | | upper left side of the heart, | | | with an oxygen-rich blood supply. | | | | | | **Function**: It | | | receives oxygenated blood from | | | the lungs through the | | | four pulmonary veins. Upon | | | contraction, the left atrium | | | sends the oxygenated blood | | | through the bicuspid (mitral) | | | valve into the left ventricle. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Left Ventricle** | **Structure**: The left ventricle | | | is the thickest-walled chamber, | | | located below the left atrium. It | | | has a larger cavity compared to | | | the right ventricle due to the | | | higher pressure required to pump | | | blood to the entire body. | | | | | | **Function**: During contraction | | | (systole), the left ventricle | | | pumps oxygenated blood through | | | the aortic valve into the aorta, | | | the main artery of the body, to | | | deliver oxygen and nutrients to | | | tissues throughout the entire | | | body. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Associated Blood Vessels** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Superior & Inferior Vena Cava** | These large veins | | | return deoxygenated blood from | | | the body to the right atrium. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pulmonary Arteries** | These vessels carry deoxygenated | | | blood from the right ventricle to | | | the lungs, where it will be | | | oxygenated. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Pulmonary Veins** | These veins carry oxygenated | | | blood from the lungs back to the | | | left atrium. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Aorta** | The largest artery in the body, | | | it carries oxygenated blood from | | | the left ventricle to the | | | systemic circulation, which | | | delivers oxygen-rich blood to the | | | body\'s tissues. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **12.5     Trace the flow of blood through the heart, pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.** Right Atrium → Tricuspid Valve → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Valve → Pulmonary Arteries → Lungs(oxygenation) → Pulmonary Veins → Left Atrium → Bicuspid Valve → Left Ventricle → Aortic Valve → Aorta → Systemic Circulation (body tissues) → Superior and Inferior Vena Cava → Right Atrium. **12.6     Describe the electrical conduction system of the heart.** \- The **SA node** initiates the heartbeat and sets the pace (the pacemaker). \- The **AV node** ensures a delay between atrial and ventricular contraction. \- The **Bundle of His** and **bundle branches** relay the impulse to the ventricles. \- The **Purkinje fibers** spread the impulse throughout the ventricles, ensuring coordinated ventricular contraction. **12.7     Describe the difference in the anatomies of arteries, veins and capillaries and discuss the significance of these differences.** - **Arteries**: Thick-walled, muscular, and elastic for high-pressure blood transport from the heart to the body. - **Veins**: Thinner-walled, larger lumens, and valves for low-pressure return of blood to the heart. - **Capillaries**: Thin-walled and highly permeable for efficient exchange of materials between blood and tissues. **12.8     Identify major arteries and veins of the human body.** **Arteries:** - Aorta (main artery of the body) - Common Carotid Arteries (head and neck) - Subclavian Arteries (upper limbs) - Pulmonary Artery (lungs) - Renal Arteries (kidneys) - Femoral Artery (lower limbs) **Veins:** - Superior and Inferior Vena Cava (return deoxygenated blood to the heart) - Jugular Veins (drain head and neck) - Subclavian Veins (drain upper limbs) - Brachiocephalic Veins (join to form superior vena cava) - Renal Veins (drain kidneys) - Femoral Vein (drain lower limbs) - Pulmonary Veins (return oxygenated blood from lungs) **12.9     Define systole and diastole and describe how these relate to arterial blood pressure.** - **Systole** is the phase when the heart contracts and pumps blood, creating **systolic pressure** (the higher pressure value). - **Diastole** is the phase when the heart relaxes and fills with blood, creating **diastolic pressure** (the lower pressure value). - **Arterial blood pressure** is the combination of these two pressures and is crucial for determining the health of the cardiovascular system. **Unit 13: Lymphatic System and Immunity** **13.1     Describe the formation and function of lymph.** \- Drains excess interstitial fluid from the interstitial space into lymphatic vessels, then returns it to bloodstream. \- Transports dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the small intestine to the bloodstream. \- Recognizes and kills infectious organisms. \- Recognizes and tolerates our own cells as well as non-harmful foreign molecules such as food and environmental substances. \- Produces immunological memory cells that prevent infection from the same organism in the future. **13.2     Explain the function of the lymph nodes, thymus, tonsils and the spleen.** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lymph Nodes** | **Function: **Lymph nodes act as | | | filters for lymph, trapping and | | | destroying pathogens, such as | | | bacteria and viruses, and foreign | | | particles. They also serve as | | | sites where immune cells, like | | | lymphocytes (T-cells and | | | B-cells), can interact with | | | antigens (foreign substances) and | | | mount an immune response. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Thymus** | **Function:** The thymus is | | | primarily responsible for the | | | maturation of T-cells (a type of | | | white blood cell). T-cells are | | | produced in the bone marrow but | | | need to mature in the thymus | | | before they can help defend the | | | body against infections and | | | cancer. The thymus helps educate | | | T-cells to recognize and attack | | | pathogens without harming the | | | body's own cells (immune | | | tolerance). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Tonsils** | **Function:** Tonsils act as the | | | first line of defense against | | | inhaled or ingested pathogens. | | | They help filter out harmful | | | microorganisms that enter through | |