Bio Ch 1-6 Notes PDF

**Chapter 1** -Theory is a hypothesis that has never been disproved. -Two types of evidence: Anecdotal and scientific -Independent variable: factors changed in a experimental group -Depended variable: measured result of an experiment -Epidemiology: study of pattern of daisies in a population -...

**Chapter 1** -Theory is a hypothesis that has never been disproved. -Two types of evidence: Anecdotal and scientific -Independent variable: factors changed in a experimental group -Depended variable: measured result of an experiment -Epidemiology: study of pattern of daisies in a population -Correlation doesn't prove one variable cause the other -Evaluating scientific information: - Study size - Presence of bias - Model system - Replication - Funding source - Publication reputation ' - Beware of hyped language - Outside input If the p value is LESS then 0.5 its statistically significant **Chapter 2** -To be alive is to have the ability to grow. - Grow - Reproduce - Maintain homeostasis - Sense and respond to stimuli - Obtain and use energy -All life comes from a common ancestor. - Eukaryotes (protists, fungi, plants, animals) - Prokaryotes (archaea, bacteria) -All matter is made-up of elements and elements are made up of atoms -Atomic number: number of protons -Atomic mass: protons+ neutrons -Isotopes: difference in number of neutrons -Same atoms make up molecules -Different atoms make up compounds -8 valence electrons are most stable -Ionic bonds: electrons are donated -Covalent bond: electrons shared -Equal sharing: nonpolar covalent bonds -Unequal sharing: polar covalent bonds -Polar molecules: electrons are not shared equally -Cohesion: water molecule cling together creating surface tension -Adhesion: water molecules cling to surfaces of other polar molecules creating meniscus -pH: is the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution -6 most common element in the body: - Oxygen - Carbon - Hydrogen - Nitrogen - Calcium - Phosphorus -Organic molecules haver a carbon-based backbone -Macromolecules: - Lipids - Proteins - Nucleic Acids - Carbohydrates -Monomers make up polymers -Hydrolysis breaks polymers -**Carbohydrates**: Polymers of sugar, formula (CH2O), energy stores, converts into Glucose -**Proteins**: Serve as building block, polymers of amino acids, -**Lipids**: provides more then 2x energy, Triglycerides (Glycerol (Head), Fatty acids (3 tails)) -Saturated fat: carbon atoms are only single bond -Unsaturated fats: Carbon atoms are double bonded -Phospholipids; building blocks of cell membranes -**Nucleic Acids**; DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) **Chapter 3** -Cell theory: - Cells are the fundamental (basic) units of life - All living organisms are composed of cells - All cells come from existing cells - *Modern cells evolved from a common ancestor* -Bacterial cells**:** lack internal membrane-bound organelles, relatively small **-**Eukaryotic cells**:** membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus, larger -Eukaryotic cells have organelles and nucleus \- bacteria cells have DNA floating and cell walls with peptidoglycan. Eukaryotic Cells. - Include animal and plant cells - Contains organelles Nucleus: - Contain DNA - Surrounded by a double membrane Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - Network of membrane pipes - Protein and lipids synthesize here - Rough ER contains ribosomes bound - Smooth ER lipid production - Structure surrounds the Nucleus Golgi Apparatus. - Packages and transport protein made in rough ER. - Customize (modify) protein Mitochondria: - Extract energy from food - Convert energy into a useful form - Power plant - Bean like structure Chloroplasts: - Found in plants and algae - 2 membranes around stacked membrane disk - Sites of photosynthesis Lysosomes: - Digestive and recycling center - Breal down worn-out cell parts or molecules Cytoskeleton: - Network of protein fibers - Function includes cell support, cell movement, and movement of structure within cell Animal cells VS Plant cells - Animal cells have lysosomes and centriole - Plants cells have Central vacuole, chloroplast, cell wall, and plasmodesmata **Endosymbiosis theory**: - Free-living bacteria cells engulfed other free-living prokaryotic cells billions of years ago, forming eukaryotic organelles -**Cell membrane:** all cells have a membrane. Which is made up of phospholipid bilayer with embedded protein that form a boundary. - Hydrophilic head - Hydrophobic tails **-Osmosis:** is the diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower-solute concentration to an of higher-solute concentration -**Hypotonic solution**: has a lower solute concentration than cell, water move into cell, cell swells -**Hypertonic solution**: has a higher solute concentration then cell, water move out of cell, cell shrinks -**Isotonic solution**: same solute concentration, no net movement, cell stay same size. -**Simple diffusion;** movement from a higher concentration to one of lower concentration requiring no energy. **Facilitated diffusion:** large or hydrophilic molecules use transport proteins in bilayer, act as a pump, requires no energy **Active Transport:** movement from a lower concentration to a higher concentration, requires energy, **How does penicillin work?** It weakens peptidoglycan of bacteria cell wall and water burst bacteria cell. **Chapter 4** -Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Proteins, lipids (fats) -Carbohydrates: - Breaks down into simple sugars -Protein: - breaks down into amino acid - cannot be stored -Lipids: - breaks down into fatty acid and glycerol -**Micronutrients**: is used for normal growth reproduction and tissue maintenance. -Minerals: inorganic elements including (Ca, Fe, K and Zn) -Vitamins: organic molecules A,C, B12 -Vitamins act as coenzymes. -Minerals act as cofactors. -Metabolism: all chemical reaction on the body \- Catabolic reaction; break down larger structure into smaller ones -Anabolic reaction: build new structures from smaller subunits -ATP power 3 types of cellular work: Chemical work, Transport work, Mechanical work. **Chapter 5** -Potential energy (Chemical Energy): stored energy in the chemical bonds, -Kinetic Energy: the energy of motion or movement. -Heat: transfer of thermal energy generated by random movement of molecules or atoms from one body to another. -Autotrophs (self-feeders): captures and transoms the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis. -Heterotrophs: obtains energy by eating another organism. -Photosynthesis: -Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast -Light energy: is the energy of the electromagnetic spectrum. Made up of (photons) with a certain amount of energy. -Photo: - Chlorophyll absorbs photons of light energy - Electrons in the chlorophyll atoms become excited - Excited electrons help generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - NADPH captures released electrons - Water is split to replace the lost electrons. Note: (Light, H2O, NADP+, ADP+P chloroplast O2, NADPH, ATP) -Synthesis (Calvin Cycle); - ATP and NADPH used to convert carbon dioxide gas from the air into glucose - This processing of converting inorganic carbon into an organic molecule is known as carbon fixation. Note: (ATP, NADPH, CO2 Calvin cycle (stroma) Sugar (G3P) -Atmosphere: - Nitrogen(N2) 78% - Oxygen (O2) 21% - Argon (Ar) 0.9% - Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.04% - Other including water vapor -ppm= parts per million -Ocean Acidification; CO2 react with H2O to form H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) causing ocean to be acidic **Chapter 6** -Cellular Respiration -**calorie**: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1C -**Calorie:** equal to 1000 calorie or 1 kilocalorie -**Glycogen:** muscle and liver cells. is a complex carbohydrate which is made up of linked chain of glucose molecules. Short-term energy storage -**Triglycerides**: is fat cells. are used to long term energy storage \- Chemical equation for Aerobic Respiration: -Aerobic respiration: series of reaction that converts stored food anergy into ATP. -3 stage of aerobic respiration: - Glycolysis - Citric acid cycle - Electron transport chain -Glycolysis: - Occurs in the [cytoplasm] - Series of reactions that breaks down sugar (glucose) into smaller units called pyruvate - Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria - Makes 2 ATP -Citric acid cycle: - Occurs in the [mitochondria] - Pyruvate is modified into acetyl-CoA and enters cycle - **NAD^+^** picks up high-energy electrons to become NADH so can transfer electrons - FADH~2~ also carries electrons - Releases carbon dioxide - Makes 2 ATP -Electron Transport Chain: - Occurs in the mitochondria - Electrons are passed from NADH down a chain of molecules to oxygen - [Oxygen] accepts the electrons and combines with hydrogen atoms to produce water - Makes 26-28 ATP -Fermentation (Anaerobic respiration): - Occurs without oxygen - Occurs in cytoplasm Warm Up: -The nucleotide guanine always pairs with Cytosine -because replication is semi conservative, each new molecule of DNA is made of 1 new and 1 old strand -the enzyme that unwind DNA before replication is called Helicase RNA don't contain Thymine (T)