EDFO 111 History of Education PDF

EDFO 111: HISTORY OF EDUCATION Define i. History ii. Education iii. History of Education HISTORY It is a record of past events or what happens in the past or All past human experience. How is it possible than to study history yet it is of the past?  Through records ...

EDFO 111: HISTORY OF EDUCATION Define i. History ii. Education iii. History of Education HISTORY It is a record of past events or what happens in the past or All past human experience. How is it possible than to study history yet it is of the past?  Through records  Artefacts, archaeological evidence.  Eye witness accounts. Historians use two main sources of information. Pry sources  These are original records e.g eye witness Secondary Sources Accounts or information given by people who did not participate or witness. EDUCATION:  It is a process of acquiring knowledge, values attitudes and skills that enable one to live.  Education is a lifelong process which is acquired from birth to death.  Education is said to be a sub system of the other system such as. i) Economy  Economic State of a country influences the education of that country in terms of resource.  Economy will determine: a. Who will get education b. Types of education c. Quality of education ii) Politics  They decide what kind of education to be offered, who gets the education and for how how long and what kind of education. iii) Culture  Calture is the total way of people life. How does culture influence education depending on attitude, values etc. 1 iv) Global Forces/Influences  Education is influenced by a wide range of global forces and factors that shape its goals, practices, and outcomes. These global influences impact education at various levels, from local classrooms to national policies and international cooperation. HISTORY OF EDUCATION  History of education is the study of the past education systems, theories, ideas and practices that influence political, scientific, economic, technical and cultural heritage. IMPORTANCE/AIMS OF STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION 1. Improving the quality of education and strengthening professional competence. - Proper study of history of education affect the way in which teachers conduct their personal and professional activities. - The subject contributes to strengthening both teachers and students by encouraging them to examine, evaluate accept or modify the cultural heritage in order to become a educational critique. 2. Understand our education system better - History of education not only teaches what education is but also where it came from and what it is bound to become in future - History of education outlines the origin, growth and development of educational institutions, methods of instructions and concepts applied in education. - It helps us to appreciate education through the achievement obtained. 3. Making comparison with historical perspective. - History of education helps an individual to draw comparisons of origins and development of different ideas practices and theories of education. 4. Exposing an individual to knowledge in other disciplines - An individual is able to acquire knowledge in other disciplines related to history of education such as sociology, psychology, philosophy and comparative education. - The study of history of education also exposes an individual to other social sciences which have activities related to human affair. 5. Developing powers of thinking. - History of education enables an individual to exercise the aspect of intellectual activities that satisfies ones curiosity aimed at helping individuals to cultivate knowledge which leads to 2  positive critism and logical reasoning. An individual is able to evaluate and analyse information using history of education. 6. Acquisition of knowledge on policy formation and decision making. - History of education involves policies that are related to education in terms of evaluation, supervision and monitoring which enables an individual to acquire knowledge and skills. - Trough history of education one is able to acquire knowledge on the aims of education nature of learners and method of learning. Scope of History of Education  Historical Evolution of Educational Systems: This includes examining how educational systems have evolved throughout history, from ancient civilizations to modern times.  Historical Figures in Education: This area focuses on the lives and contributions of influential educators, reformers, and thinkers throughout history. For example, the works of figures like John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Paulo Freire have had a lasting impact on educational practices  Description and analysis of both the formal and informal aspects of education.  The informal aspects include the total cultural context in which persons are born, grow and come to maturity. Through enculturation (the passing on of culture from one generation to another) persons acquire the symbolic, linguistic and value patterns of their culture.  The informal educational agencies of the family, church or mosque, media, state and peer group, introduce the learner to the roles that are accepted in the society. That includes philosophical, intellectual patterns that constitute the cultural experiences of a given people.  The scope also includes: definitions, descriptions and interpretations of the formal aspects of education as found in instructional form in school.  Cultural and Social Context: This involves examining the influence of social, political, economic, and cultural factors on educational practices and policies.  Pedagogical Approaches: The history of education examines different pedagogical methods and approaches employed in different historical periods and their effectiveness in achieving educational goals. EDUCATION AND EARLY MAN CIVILIZATION 3 Aspects of Education of Early Man 1. Oral Tradition: Spoken word were to pass knowledge and stories across generations through elders and experienced community members. 2. Learning through Observation: Vital skills were learned by watching and participating in daily activities. 3. Cultural and Spiritual Education: Education involved passing on cultural and spiritual aspects, such as beliefs and traditions intertwined with community life. 4. Socialization: Education was closely tied to teaching social norms and customs, ensuring community cohesion and survival. 5. Trial and Error: Learning was by experimenting with different techniques and retaining successful methods while unsuccessful ones were abandoned. 6. Mentorship: Experienced community members served as mentors, teaching skills like hunting, making tools e.t.c to the younger individuals. 7. Storytelling: Narratives, including myths and stories were used to convey important lessons, morals, and cultural knowledge. Main Objectives of Education of Early Man 1. Survival Skills: Early human education focused on imparting essential skills for survival, such as hunting, gathering, fishing, tool-making, fire-starting, and shelter-building. 2. Cultural Transmission: Education aimed to pass down cultural values, traditions, and customs through storytelling and rituals from one generation to the next. 3. Socialization: Education served as a means of teaching social norms, values, and behaviors to maintain group cohesion and cooperation. 4. Oral Tradition: In the absence of a written language, elders orally transmitted knowledge about survival techniques, animal behavior, plant properties, and the history of their people. 5. Practical Experience: Education was hands-on, with young individuals actively participating in daily activities to acquire skills through practical experience and trial-and-error learning. 6. Adaptation to Environments: Education was localized and adapted to specific ecosystems, climate, and available resources in different groups of early humans. 7. Preparation for Gender Roles: Education prepared individuals for gender-specific roles, teaching skills relevant to their expected roles as adults. 4 8. Problem-Solving and Innovation: Early human education emphasized problem-solving and innovative solutions to environmental challenges. 9. Communication Skills: Effective communication was crucial for cooperation, so early humans developed language and communication skills. 10. Passing on Survival Wisdom: Education aimed to transmit wisdom about the natural world, including animal behavior, plant properties, and seasonal patterns essential for survival. THE EGYPTIANS CIVILIZATION Egypt is the oldest civilization in history with recorded history. The Egyptian civilization is among the world's oldest, dating back to the 4th millennium B.C. It was marked by stability and a serene environment, in contrast to the turmoil in Mesopotamia. Egypt's natural features, including its harsh desert surroundings and the Red Sea, protected it from foreign invasions. The ancient history of Egypt is usually divided into a number of phases, some which were remarkable for the growth and development of their civilization. They include; a) Religion Ancient Egyptians practiced polytheism, worshiping a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Each deity had specific attributes and domains, and many were associated with natural elements and phenomena. b) Art Egyptian pyramids, the most famous Egyptian monuments, were constructed as Pharaohs' tombs. Temples had detailed relief carvings and paintings depicting gods, the afterlife, and religious ceremonies. Art recorded historical events like military campaigns, royal accomplishments, and pharaoh reigns. c) Social and Economic Life i) Social life Ancient Egyptian society was class-based, with five main classes: Pharaoh (divine leader with absolute power), Nobility and Officials (high-ranking officials and priests), Scribes and Middle Class (including skilled workers and artisans), Farmers and Laborers (the majority of the population), and Slaves (primarily war prisoners). Social ranks could change over time, and class disparities were significant compared to modern industrialized nations. The rich lived in big houses 5 and had fancy clothes, and jewelry. On the other hand, the poor people lived in small, crowded places. The farmers on big farms had a little better life, but it was still simple. ii) Economic life The Egyptian economy was mainly agrarian, with advanced agriculture yielding various crops. Land was owned by the Pharaohs, and commerce developed after 2000 BC. Egyptians practiced accounting and created property deeds, written contracts, and wills. They used copper or gold rings as currency. d) Intellectual Achievements Egypt's intellectual achievements included hieroglyphic writing, which had pictographic, syllabic, and alphabetic characters. They used papyrus for writing, which was lighter than clay tablets. They pioneered short stories in the Middle Kingdom. In practical sciences, they focused on astronomy, medicine, and mathematics, creating an advanced calendar. Their medical practices emphasized natural causes and precise diagnosis, like listening to the heartbeat and pulse. In mathematics, they recognized the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter as constant for all circles. e) Education Egyptian education was embodied in the religious, artistic and architectural, social and economic and intellectual aspects. Factors that contributed to Egypt’s civilization. 1. Writing System: The hieroglyphic writing system and later the hieratic script allowed for record-keeping, communication, and the preservation of knowledge. 2. Centralized Government: The centralized government, with a powerful pharaoh, ensured political stability and effective resource management. 3. Educational and Intellectual Centers: Centers of learning and knowledge, such as the Library of Alexandria, played a significant role in advancing various fields of science and scholarship. 4. Advanced Architecture: The ancient Egyptians developed advanced architectural techniques, including the construction of monumental structures like the pyramids and temples. 5. Calendar and Mathematics: The development of a calendar based on the Nile's annual flood cycle and advancements in mathematics were crucial for agricultural planning and architectural precision. 6 6. Natural Resources: Egypt had access to various natural resources such as papyrus, which was used for writing and making paper, as well as minerals like gold and stone for construction. 7. Hierarchical Society: Egypt had a well-structured society with a pharaoh at the top, followed by a complex bureaucracy, priests, and a labor force. This hierarchical structure allowed for efficient governance and resource management. 8. Trade: Egypt's strategic location at the crossroads of Africa and the Middle East facilitated trade with neighboring regions, bringing in valuable resources and ideas. 9. Longevity/permanence: The civilization of Egypt endured for thousands of years, which allowed for the accumulation of knowledge and cultural development 10. Religion and Culture: Egypt's religious beliefs and cultural practices played a significant role in shaping the civilization, with the construction of monumental temples, pyramids, and a well- defined pantheon (collection of gods or deities) of gods THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION Educational Aims Egyptian Education aimed at:  Maintaining social stability and status quo – education was aimed at maintaining social stability and hierarchy by slotting individuals into their respective social, political, and economic roles.  Producing professionals and work oriented people. It was practical, technical and professional and sought to produce professionals and work oriented personnel.  Advancing agriculture with complex irrigation and flood control networks –Egyptian education focused on practical skills, leading to advanced farming techniques like irrigation and flood control. This made Egypt a major food producer for the world.  Promoting and enhance a religious view of the world. Egyptian education focused on polytheistic religion, teaching morals and devotion to gods for this life and the next. It included religious and philosophical studies to match society's beliefs. Organization of education Egyptian education was structured into these three levels, each serving different purposes and emphasizing distinct skills. These levels include; 1. Elementary Education:  Focused on vocational training more than reading and writing. 7  Boys began at age four and studied until age 14.  Curriculum included writing, basic science, math, and more.  Teaching methods were rote memorization and imitation.  Discipline was strict, emphasizing good manners and cleanliness.  Informal training was offered for boys who didn't attend school. 2. Secondary Education:  Took place in the same location as elementary education.  Emphasized refining writing and craftsmanship.  Upper-class boys improved etiquette and behavior. 3. Higher and Professional Education:  Education occurred in temples, colleges, or universities.  Higher education was mainly for priests and professionals.  Knowledge was informally passed to relatives, colleagues, and equals.  Limited to recognized heirs, especially in priesthood and medicine. Contributions of Egyptians Education to Modern Civilization Egyptian education made several significant contributions to modern civilization: 1. Foundations of Formal Education: The Egyptians created formal schools like temples, colleges, and universities, which inspired modern education systems. 2. Use of Literature and Teaching Methods: Egypt used stories, sayings, and moral lessons in literature to teach, influencing today's teaching methods. 3. Mathematical Advancements: The Egyptian method of multiplication had a lasting impact and was used in parts of Eastern Europe and Asia, contributing to the development of mathematical concepts and techniques. 4. Medical Knowledge: Egyptian knowledge of physiology, surgery, and blood circulation, as well as the invention of the Hippocratic Oath, shaped the foundations of modern medicine and medical ethics. 5. Hieroglyphics and Writing Materials: Hieroglyphics and papyrus paper influenced writing and documentation, helping modern record-keeping. 6. Influence on Architecture and Art: Egyptian architecture influenced modern building practices, and their art inspired contemporary painting and sculpture. 8 7. Contribution to Science and Technology: Egypt's advances in engineering, agriculture, and more formed the basis for later Western science and technology. THE ANCIENT GREECE EDUCATION Greek education evolved over time, with two distinct eras: 1. Old Era (Discipline-Oriented): This era, represented by Spartan education, emphasized discipline and physical fitness. The content of education included gymnastics, music, and literature. These aspects continue to be important in modern education. 2. New Era (Intellectual Focus): Athens symbolized the new era, which shifted the focus towards intellectual development. Education in this era included mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and philosophy. Mathematics was considered an introduction to philosophy, reflecting the growing importance of intellectual pursuits. These two eras of Greek education laid the foundation for many elements that are still valued in today's education system. The balance between physical fitness and intellectual development remains a key consideration in modern education. Education in Sparta (old type)  The city-state of Sparta was situated in the middle of a hostile conquered people who greatly outnumbered the Spartans.  Due to this, the main objective of Spartan education was to produce warriors for the survival of society.  It was designed to instil and develop obedience and loyalty in Spartan youth and was highly paternalistic. Aims of Spartan Education 1. Promote Subordination and Obedience: Spartan education aimed to instill complete subordination and obedience to the state, emphasizing the importance of loyalty to the collective. 2. Cultivate Discipline and Courage: The education system focused on cultivating discipline, courage, physical fitness, and perseverance in individuals, preparing them for the challenges of life. 9 3. Produce Warriors and Soldiers: One of the primary goals was to produce capable warriors and soldiers who could defend the city and its interests. 4. Maintain Social Stability: Spartan education aimed to maintain social stability within the city-state by teaching values and behaviors that supported the established order. 5. Restrain Individualism: The system sought to restrain individualism and discourage ideas or actions that contradicted the state's prescribed interests, emphasizing the collective welfare over individual desires. The Content 1. Gymnastics and Paramilitary: Emphasized gymnastics and paramilitary training for physical fitness and military skills. 2. Music: Aimed to instill moral values and promote a war-oriented mindset in alignment with Sparta's martial focus. 3. Dance: Included to enhance physical strength and vigor rather than entertainment. 4. Reading and Writing: there were some reading and writing though it received minimal attention Aims of Spartan Education 1. To promote total subordination and obedience to the state: The goal was to ensure that citizens placed the interests of the state above their personal desires or ambitions, fostering a strong sense of civic duty. 2. To promote total discipline, courage, physical fitness, and perseverance: Spartan education was dedicated to molding individuals into disciplined, courageous, physically fit, and persevering citizens. 3. To produce warrior soldiers for the defense of the city: The state prioritized military preparedness to ensure the city's safety and dominance in the region. 4. Maintaining social stability: By teaching discipline and obedience, education contributed to a stable, ordered, and predictable social structure. 5. To restrain individualism and any ideas inconsistent with the state's interests: Spartan education discouraged individualism and any beliefs or ideas that contradicted the values and interests defined by the state. Methods of Learning Observation and Participation. 10 Organization of the Education Spartan education prioritized the state's defense over family bonds. Children were rigorously selected and exposed to harsh conditions to ensure only the strongest survived. Girls and slaves learned domestic skills, while boys endured extreme challenges, including exposure to harsh climates and military training. Discipline was instilled through harsh living conditions, regular military training, and gymnastics for both genders. At 18, boys became cadets, focusing on warfare studies, and at 25, they joined the citizen class. By age 30, they became full citizens. Education was entirely controlled by the state, which held absolute power over its methods and provisions. Impact of the Spatan Education to Modern Education 1. Physical Fitness and Character Development: Spartan education emphasized physical fitness, similar to modern systems promoting well-being and character development with values like discipline, perseverance, and courage. 2. Military and Leadership Training: While modern education doesn't create soldiers like Sparta, institutions like military academies provide leadership and military skills training, partly inspired by Spartan education. 3. Collective Responsibility and Civic Duty: Spartan education stressed civic duty and loyalty to the state, similar to modern education's focus on civic responsibility, patriotism, and community contributions. 4. Gender Roles: Spartan education trained both boys and girls physically, whereas modern education promotes gender equality and balanced opportunities for all. 5. State Control: In Sparta, the state controlled education; similarly, many countries have state- controlled education systems setting standards and curricula. Education in Athens (new type) The New Greek education was state-regulated but emphasized individual fulfillment and freedom. It was scientific, prioritizing science over theology, aiming to promote democracy and free reflection. Both physical and intellectual excellence were valued, with citizens having the freedom to arrange their children's education. Aims of Education in Athens 1. Promote the concept of a good life by teaching moral values and emphasizing their importance. 2. Preparing the youth for both peace and war, emphasizing usefulness of their education. 11 3. Advocating for the development of democratic individuals, nurturing active citizens. 4. Producing all-round individuals by fostering physical, spiritual, mental, and intellectual development. 5. Producing a society that was liberal, controlled, and intelligent by emphasizing the importance of a well-rounded and thoughtful citizenry. Organization of the Education  The elementary schools were private so people had to pay to study there.  Children joined school at the age of 7 years.  The children stay in school depended on ability of parents to pay. Curricula Content 1. Physical Education (Gymnastics): Gymnastics, which included exercises, sports, and athletics, aimed to produce physically fit and disciplined citizens. 2. Music and the Arts: Emphasis was on playing instruments, and singing. These activities were seen as essential for the development of character and cultural refinement. 3. Rhetoric and Oratory: Students learned the art of public speaking and debate through the study of rhetoric and oratory to improve ability to speak persuasively for participating in democratic processes. 4. Literature and Poetry: Study of classical Greek literature, including poets and playwrights. Reading and analyzing literary works was an integral part of education. 5. Mathematics: Basic mathematics, geometry, and arithmetic were taught to students, although the level of mathematical education varied depending on the individual's future pursuits. 6. Philosophy: Athens was home to great philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Philosophy was often a part of the education of the intellectual elite. Students engaged in discussions on moral, ethical, and philosophical issues. 7. History and Politics: Students learned about the city's democratic institutions and the historical events that shaped Athenian society. 8. Ethics and Morality: Students were taught about virtues, ethics, and moral values to help them become responsible citizens. 9. Practical Skills: Depending on their family background and social class, students might receive vocational training or apprenticeships in areas like agriculture, craftsmanship, or trade. 12 Method of Teaching 1. Simple Memorization: The process of learning and remembering information or facts by heart. 2. Recitation: Verbally repeating or rehearsing information, often from memory or a written text. 3. Singing: The act of vocalizing musical notes and lyrics, often as a form of artistic expression or cultural practice. Impact of the Education in Athens to Modern Education 1. Well-Rounded Education: Athenian education emphasized holistic development, influencing modern education systems that value physical, intellectual, and moral growth. 2. Arts and Humanities: The emphasis on arts and literature in Athens has left a mark on modern curricula, highlighting the importance of the humanities. 3. Rhetoric and Communication Skills: Athenian focus on effective communication parallels modern education's emphasis on public speaking and communication skills. 4. Philosophical Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Athenian education's encouragement of critical thinking aligns with the modern educational goal of promoting deep thinking and questioning. 5. Historical and Civic Education: Similar to modern civics education, Athenian education included teaching about history and governance principles, fostering civic engagement. EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EUROPE Medieval Education and Universities Medieval education in Europe, which spanned roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, was primarily influenced by the Christian Church and the need to educate clergy. During this period, education was primarily provided by religious institutions, and the foundation for the modern university system was established. The Forces behind the Rise of Universities Among the forces or influences that produced universities were; 1. Ecclesiastical Authority: The dominant role of the Christian Church and the demand for educated clergy led to the establishment of early universities. 13 2. Demand for Educated Professionals: The growing need for non-clergy professionals, such as lawyers and doctors, created a demand for higher education to prepare individuals for these roles. 3. Urbanization and Wealth: The growth of prosperous cities became hubs for education and knowledge, providing a fertile ground for universities to thrive. 4. Revival of Learning: A renewed interest in classical knowledge and the works of Greek and Roman philosophers inspired the establishment of centers of higher learning. 5. Charter and Privileges: Formal recognition, charters, and privileges from secular and ecclesiastical authorities granted universities legal status and autonomy, enabling their growth and development. Organization and management of medieval universities 1. Faculties: Universities were organized into distinct faculties, each specializing in a specific area of study. These typically included faculties of theology, law, medicine, and the arts. Each faculty had its own dean and was responsible for managing its academic programs. 2. Governance: Universities had a hierarchical structure with a chancellor or rector at the top, often appointed by the local ruler or ecclesiastical authority. Beneath them were deans of individual faculties, followed by professors. Students also had a say in university governance through student guilds and organizations. 3. Curriculum and Degrees: Universities offered a standardized curriculum that followed the trivium and quadrivium, as well as specialized courses in each faculty. The Bologna Process, introduced by the University of Bologna, standardized the degrees of bachelor, master, and doctorate. The conferral of degrees was managed by the university authorities. 4. Funding and Patronage: Medieval universities relied on various sources of funding, including tuition fees paid by students, donations from benefactors, and support from local rulers or the Church. Patronage from kings and nobility played a crucial role in university sustainability. 5. Student Guilds: Students organized themselves into guilds or associations to protect their rights, negotiate with university authorities, and maintain a sense of community. 14  These guilds had a say in university governance and could influence decisions related to academics and student welfare. Influence of Medieval University Training 1. Professionalization of Professions: Medieval universities provided specialized education in fields such as law, medicine, and theology. This led to the professionalization of these disciplines, setting the groundwork for modern professions and the development of specialized career paths. 2. Development of Academic Disciplines: The university structure with its distinct faculties laid the foundation for academic disciplines as we know them today. This organizational structure influenced the modern higher education system, where various fields of study are organized into separate departments and schools. 3. Standardized Curriculum and Degrees: The Bologna Process, introduced by the University of Bologna, established a standardized curriculum and degree system. This framework contributed to the global standardization of higher education, making it easier for students to transfer and compare their educational qualifications across different countries and institutions. 4. Transnational Exchange of Ideas: Medieval universities were centers of learning and intellectual exchange. Scholars and students from various regions gathered at these institutions, fostering cross-cultural scholarship and the exchange of ideas. This contributed to the spread of knowledge and helped bridge cultural and geographical divides. 5. Cultural Preservation and Knowledge Dissemination: Universities played a crucial role in preserving classical texts and religious writings. The invention of the printing press during the late medieval period allowed for more efficient production and dissemination of knowledge, with universities contributing to the production and distribution of printed texts. This significantly impacted the preservation and sharing of knowledge in subsequent centuries. AFRICAN INDIGENOUS EDUCATION African ingenious education is the learning which existed in African communities before the coming of the whites. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes of community were passed from elders and more experienced members of the community through oral instructions and practical activities to the children in order to make them responsible society members. 15 Characteristics/Features of African Indigenous Education Features of indigenous system of education in Africa 1. Preparatory Focus: It aimed to prepare children to become valuable members of their household, village, and community. Girls were groomed for their future roles as housewives and mothers, while boys were trained to be future fathers. 2. Functional Education: Education was highly practical and focused on immediate integration into society. Children actively participated in learning through play, work, ceremonies, rituals, and initiation, acquiring essential skills for their roles in the community. 3. Economic Participation: Indigenous education stressed economic engagement, with an emphasis on job orientation and the practical application of acquired knowledge to community needs. Motivation for learning was intrinsic as children understood the direct relevance of their education to their future roles. 4. Adaptability: Learners were encouraged to acquire a range of skills rather than specializing in specific trades. This adaptability allowed them to learn farming, hunting, house building, and cooking, as well as principles for community well-being. 5. Environment-Centric Curriculum: The curriculum was tailored to the local environment, equipping children with knowledge and skills needed to navigate and exploit local resources effectively. It promoted self-sufficiency and coping with the often harsh environment. 6. Communal Cohesion: The education system emphasized strong communal cohesion, fostering a sense of belonging and responsibility to society. Individualistic tendencies were limited to societal norms, customs, and a code of morality that emphasized decency, respect for elders, obedience to authority, and cooperation for the community's survival. Aims of education in indigenous education 1. Preparation for Adulthood: Indigenous education primarily aimed to prepare the youth for adult life within their society, equipping them with the knowledge and skills needed for effective participation in their communities. 2. Normative and Expressive Goals: These education systems focused on both normative and expressive objectives. Normative goals aimed to instill accepted standards and beliefs that 16  governed correct behavior, while expressive goals aimed to foster unity and consensus within the community. 3. Integration with Social Life: Indigenous education was closely intertwined with social life. The content of what was taught was directly related to the social context in which people lived, emphasizing the relevance of acquired knowledge and skills. 4. Socialization: These systems sought to systematically socialize the younger generation into the norms, religious and cultural beliefs, and collective opinions of the broader society. The goal was to pass down cultural and moral values. 5. Practical Skills and Knowledge: Indigenous education placed a strong emphasis on the acquisition of practical skills and knowledge that were not only useful to the individual but also contributed to the betterment of the entire society. Content of Indigenous Education in Africa 1. Oral Tradition and Storytelling: Elders and storytellers passed down cultural knowledge through oral narratives, preserving history, folklore, and values within the community. 2. Practical Life Skills: Indigenous education emphasized essential practical skills like farming, hunting, and craftsmanship, crucial for self-sufficiency and community well-being. 3. Cultural and Spiritual Education: It focused on teaching cultural and spiritual beliefs, encompassing rituals, ceremonies, and connections with nature and ancestors, fostering cultural identity and spirituality. 4. Social and Moral Values: Indigenous education instilled values like respect for elders, cooperation, and ethical behavior, vital for community harmony. 5. Environmental Knowledge: Understanding the local environment, sustainable resource management, and a deep connection to the land were integral parts of indigenous education, ensuring survival in specific ecological settings. Pedagogy in African indigenous education/teaching/instructional Methods 1. Oral Tradition: Much of African indigenous education was transmitted orally. Elders, storytellers, and traditional leaders played a crucial role in passing down knowledge, history, and cultural values through storytelling, proverbs, and oral discussions. This method emphasized active listening and oral recitation. 17 2. Apprenticeship and Observational Learning: Learning through apprenticeship was a fundamental approach in many African societies. Young individuals learned from experienced members of their community, whether it was a craftsperson, a farmer, or a healer. This hands- on approach encouraged practical skills and experiential learning. 3. Rites of Passage: Many African cultures incorporated rites of passage into their education systems. These rituals marked the transition from one life stage to another and often included lessons on roles, responsibilities, and cultural norms. They were experiential and often involved communal participation. 4. Participatory and Communal Learning: Learning was a communal endeavor in many African societies. It involved participation in group activities and discussions. Students learned from each other and from the community as a whole, fostering a sense of belonging and shared values. 5. Cultural and Practical Relevance: Education in indigenous African cultures was closely tied to the practical needs of the community. Skills and knowledge taught were often directly applicable to daily life, whether it was agriculture, hunting, herbal medicine, or craftsmanship. 6. Respect for Elders and Ancestors: Elders were highly respected as repositories of wisdom and knowledge. Students were expected to show deep respect for their teachers and ancestors, and this respect was integral to the learning process. 7. Symbolism and Rituals: Many indigenous African education systems employed symbolism and rituals to convey lessons and values. Symbolic objects, dance, music, and visual arts were used to pass on knowledge and cultural heritage. 8. Storytelling and Myths: Myths, fables, and folktales were commonly used to teach moral lessons, values, and historical narratives. These narratives were engaging and helped to convey cultural identity. 9. Learning through Play: Games, songs, and role-playing were used to engage young learners. Play was considered an important tool for skill development and cultural understanding. Philosophical Foundations of African indigenous education 1. Communalism: Emphasized group cohesion and unity within a clan, encouraging parents to raise children in ways that strengthened their ties to the community. 18 2. Preparationism: Children were prepared to become valuable members of their household, village, clan, and tribe. Girls, in particular, were trained to be future wives. 3. Functionalism: Learning by doing was central to education, with children expected to acquire skills and knowledge that would benefit the society and contribute to its functioning. 4. Perennialism: Traditional education focused on the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to the next, preserving important customs and values. 5. Holisticism: Education aimed for well-rounded individuals capable of fulfilling multiple roles, such as farming, building, hunting, and fishing, promoting self-sufficiency and adaptability within the community. RENAISSANCE & EDUCATION The Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Italy in the 14th century and later spread across Europe. It had a significant impact on education, leading to profound changes in the way knowledge was acquired and disseminated. Causes of the Renaissance 1. The Spirit of Discussion in Medieval Universities: The intellectual atmosphere of medieval universities, influenced by scholasticism, fostered a speculative spirit. This led to a struggle between the progressive Naturalism and the authoritarian Supernaturalism of the Catholic Church. 2. The Crusades (1095-1270): The Crusades exposed Europeans to eastern civilization, spurring a desire for new products and commodities. Trade, commerce, and manufacturing thrived, elevating the middle class and inspiring a new way of life. The Crusades also introduced European contact with Byzantine and Arabic learning rooted in the Hellenic tradition. 3. The Age of Discoveries: Exploration and scientific discoveries heightened the spirit of inquiry. Expanding commerce sought new trade routes, leading to the formation of national nuclei. The emerging spirit of nationality stimulated belief in Europe's natural powers, challenging previously settled questions and resulting in the production of new national literatures. 19 4. The Invention of Printing: The introduction of paper from the East and the invention of printing by 1450 facilitated the spread of new learning and education throughout Europe. Manuscripts were replaced by printed books, making information and knowledge accessible to a wider audience. 5. The Order of Chivalry: The secular ideal of chivalry, emphasizing expertise and character, instilled faith in human capacities and possibilities, in contrast to the rigid religious constraints of the time. Factors that lead to the Spread of the Renaissance Ideals 1. Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg's invention in the mid-15th century revolutionized knowledge dissemination, making books more accessible and accelerating the spread of Renaissance ideas. 2. Humanist Scholars and Universities: Influential humanist scholars like Petrarch and Erasmus promoted classical texts, individualism, and critiqued medieval scholasticism, influencing intellectuals. European universities, including the University of Padua and the University of Bologna, embraced humanism, encouraging the study of classical languages and texts, contributing to the dissemination of Renaissance ideals. 3. Patronage and Artistic Achievements: Wealthy patrons, like the Medici family, supported artists, scholars, and writers, fostering Renaissance culture that promoted humanism and individualism. Renaissance art, with its focus on realism and the human form by artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, reflected humanist values and influenced the spread of Renaissance ideals. 4. Trade, Commerce, and Exploration: Expanding trade and commerce facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures, particularly in urban centers where Renaissance ideals thrived. Voyages of exploration led by figures like Christopher Columbus introduced Europeans to new cultures and knowledge, contributing to the dissemination of Renaissance ideals. 5. Literature and Religious Reformation: Works like Dante's "Divine Comedy" and Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" carried humanist themes to a broad readership. The Protestant Reformation, led by figures like Martin Luther, challenged the authority of the Catholic Church and promoted individualism, critical thinking, and religious reform, spreading Renaissance ideals. 20 6. Educational Reforms: The establishment of humanist curricula in schools and universities promoted Renaissance values, encouraging the study of classical literature, rhetoric, and critical thinking, furthering the spread of Renaissance ideals. Educational Significance of the Renaissance 1. Revival of Learning: The Renaissance renewed interest in Greek and Roman classics, fostering humanism and a human-centered curriculum with an emphasis on the humanities and classical languages. 2. University Expansion: Renaissance transformed universities like Padua and Bologna, embracing humanism and broadening curricula to include classical literature and philosophy. 3. Individualism and Critical Thinking: Renaissance humanism emphasized individual value, nurturing critical thinking and inquiry skills in education. 4. Secular Education: Alongside the Church's role, the Renaissance saw the rise of secular education, exploring a wider range of subjects, including art, science, and literature. 5. Art and Science Fusion: Renaissance integrated art and science, emphasizing observation and empirical inquiry, exemplified by artists like Leonardo da Vinci. 6. Printing Revolution: Johannes Gutenberg's printing press made knowledge more accessible and affordable, crucial in spreading Renaissance ideas to a wider audience. 7. Civic Education: Renaissance promoted history, political philosophy, and civic engagement in education, encouraging active participation in communities. 8. Global Exploration: The Age of Exploration, concurrent with the Renaissance, exposed Europeans to new cultures and knowledge, fostering global education and cultural understanding. 9. Educational Reforms: The Renaissance standardized curricula and degrees, creating a structured approach to education, laying the foundation for modern universities. 10. Literacy and Access: Humanism and classical language studies increased literacy, improving access to education and knowledge for a broader population. Main ideas of Martin Luther on education Martin Luther, the 16th-century German theologian and leader of the Protestant Reformation, had significant views on education. Some of his main ideas on education included: 21 1. School Organization: There was a focus on organizing new schools, determining their funding, and making changes to public finances to support education. 2. Instruction Improvement: Methods of instruction were enhanced to provide more effective teaching. 3. Renewed Educational Spirit: The education spirit was revitalized in alignment with Protestant principles, promoting a shift in educational values. 4. Gender Equality: Emphasis was placed on educational equality, encouraging education for both boys and girls. 5. Religious Education: Religious education was given top priority in the curriculum. 6. Language Study: Recommendations were made for the study of languages, recognizing their importance. 7. Mathematics and Science: There was an emphasis on the study of mathematics and the natural sciences. 8. Physical Exercise: Physical exercises were recommended as part of the curriculum to promote physical well-being. 9. Music as Discipline: Music was seen as a means of discipline, fostering tolerance and kindness in individuals. 10. Liberty and Joy: Schools were envisioned as places of liberty and joy for all learners, emphasizing a positive and inclusive educational environment. Calvinism and Education: Calvinism, a branch of Protestantism founded by John Calvin in the 16th century, had a significant influence on education, particularly in regions where it became the dominant religious and ideological force. Some key aspects of Calvinism and its impact on education include: 1. Education for the Laity: Calvinism emphasized the need for a literate and educated laity, making education accessible to a broader segment of society. 2. Discipline and Moral Development: Formal schooling was seen as a way to discipline children and steer them away from sinful behavior. 3. Rejection of Play: Calvinist educators rejected play as idleness and justified the use of corporal punishment as a means of maintaining discipline. 22 4. Dual Track System: Calvinists, like Lutherans, favored a dual track system of schools. The common people attended vernacular schools, while upper-class children attended classical Latin grammar schools. 5. Vernacular Schools: Vernacular schools provided education for the common people, teaching subjects like catechism, psalms, reading, writing, arithmetic, and history. 6. Latin Grammar Schools: Classical Latin grammar schools were maintained for upper-class children, preparing them for higher studies and emphasizing subjects like Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 7. Preparation for Leadership Roles: Schools aimed to prepare future ministers, lawyers, and leaders in higher education by focusing on classical languages and subjects. Liberal Education Renaissance education encouraged the development of freedom and individualism, moving away from the medievalism and supernaturalism of the Romans towards the free Germanic spirit. Some key aspects of liberal education include; 1. Practical and Aesthetic Approach: Renaissance education aimed to be practical and grounded in the real world, emphasizing the application of knowledge over abstract theory. It also introduced an aesthetic element that was absent in medieval education, focusing on the beauty and artistic aspects of learning. 2. Body Care Emphasis: Renaissance education placed significant importance on the care of the body, a departure from previous cultures where this aspect was often overlooked. Physical well-being and health became integral components of education. 3. Inclusive Education: Unlike the past, where education was primarily reserved for the clergy, the Renaissance sought to extend education to all social classes. It aimed to make learning accessible to a broader segment of society. 4. Gentler Teaching Methods: The Renaissance introduced gentler and more appealing teaching methods, moving away from the harsh and uninviting approaches that had been prevalent in earlier education. The focus was on making learning an enjoyable and engaging experience. Humanistic Education  Humanistic education emphasized the language of Greece and Rome i.e. the humanities. The spirit of humanism was not confined to scholars, but was spread to 23  other parts of society, aiding in generally tolerant way of life, and in scholarly circles contributing toward moderation in intellectual altercations.  Nevertheless, in due course humanistic education was narrowed down to linguistic education only. It was becoming pointless and profitless to concentrate on humanistic education by the seventeenth century. Reformation  The term reformation refers to a series of revolts against the Catholic Church which had resisted all efforts at internal reforms of its ecclesiastical doctrines or mode of religious worship or methods of worship. Forces behind the Reformation movement There were several inter-related causes of the Reformation Movement. They include: 1. Renaissance Era - Humanism: The Renaissance embraced humanism, focusing on human potential and well-rounded education, shifting toward human-centered ideals. 2. Rise of Humanist Philosophy: The Renaissance saw the emergence of humanist philosophy that challenged medieval scholasticism. It promoted critical thinking and the study of classical texts, leading to a more progressive approach to learning. 3. Rise of Nationalism in Europe: During the Renaissance, nationalism grew in Europe as nation-states celebrated their unique identities and languages. This fostered unity and pride among European nations. 4. Rise of Protestant Reformers: The Renaissance witnessed the ascent of Protestant reformers, led by figures like Martin Luther. They challenged the Catholic Church's authority, advocating for religious reforms and establishing new Christian branches. 5. Refusal of Catholic Church Reforms: Despite calls for internal reforms, the Catholic Church resisted significant changes to its doctrines and practices. This resistance deepened the divide between the Catholic Church and Protestant reformers, leading to the Christian schism. Impact of Reformation on Education a) Changes in Aims and Content of Education: The Reformation brought a focus on religious and theological aims in education. Catholics and Protestants emphasized training in dialectic rhetoric and theology. This helped prepare scholars to defend their beliefs. 24 b) Development of Public Support for Elementary Schools: Protestants, who believed in a strong connection between Church and state, favored state-supported and state-controlled education. They aimed for universal free and mandatory education, except for Anglicans. Martin Luther advocated state control of public schools. In contrast, Catholics entrusted educational matters to religious orders. c) Influence on Secondary Schools and Universities: The shift toward state-controlled elementary education extended to secondary schools. Princes and states began overseeing these schools. Universities faced changes as well. While many remained loyal to Catholicism and ecclesiastical authority, some started to distance themselves from temporal princes. English universities like Oxford and Cambridge aligned with Protestantism under the Church of England. Despite these changes, education still largely remained in the hands of religious leaders, focused on traditional subjects. Science was viewed with suspicion, often associated with magic or forbidden knowledge. This period saw an ongoing struggle between supernaturalism and authority versus the pursuit of knowledge through nature and science. The influence of Reformation on the development of modern theory and practice in education 1. State-Supported Education: The Reformation led to the provision of education by states, including the construction of schools and the establishment of Ministries of Education. This laid the foundation for the modern concept of state involvement in education. 2. Gender-Neutral Teaching: The Reformation advocated for well-trained teachers to teach in schools, irrespective of their gender, aligning with modern principles of equal educational opportunities. 3. Parental Responsibility: It encouraged parents to take responsibility for the education of their children, reflecting the modern understanding of parental involvement in a child's education. 4. Teaching Methods: The Reformation emphasized improving teaching methods, a value that modern education systems also prioritize. 5. Education for All: The Reformation contributed to the idea of providing education for the masses, which is prevalent in the modern theory of education for all. 6. Changes in Aims and Content: The Reformation brought changes in the aims and content of education to align with the needs of societies, a concept that continues to evolve in modern education. 25 7. Expansion to Secondary and Higher Education: The move toward a state system of education extended from elementary to secondary and higher education, a model still prevalent in modern educational structures. 8. Physical Education: The Reformation emphasized physical education, a value reflected in modern extracurricular activities and the promotion of physical well-being. 9. Reform in Discipline Methods: Advocates of the Reformation, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ignatius Loyola, encouraged more modest methods of punishment, influencing modern discipline practices in education. 10. Mass Literacy Campaigns: There was a campaign for elementary education for everybody to promote mass literacy, reflecting modern efforts for universal literacy. 11. Curricular Expansion: The curriculum expanded from ecclesiastical to secular subjects, reflecting modern diversity in educational content. Factors that contributed to the Reformation and Counter Reformation The Reformation and Counter-Reformation were significant religious movements in the 16th century, and several factors contributed to their emergence: Reformation Factors: 1. Corruption in the Catholic Church: Widespread corruption, including the sale of indulgences, nepotism, and a focus on wealth and power, led to discontent among many Catholics. 2. Criticism and Reform Movements: Pre-Reformation reformers like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus criticized the Church's practices and called for reforms. 3. Rise of Humanism: The Renaissance's emphasis on human values and classical learning led to a more critical examination of religious practices and Church authority. 4. Access to the Bible: The printing press made the Bible more widely available, allowing people to read and interpret Scripture for themselves, leading to diverse interpretations. 5. Political Factors: Support from secular rulers, such as Martin Luther's protection by German princes, played a significant role in the spread of Reformation ideas. 26 Counter-Reformation Factors: 1. Protestant Challenge: The success of the Reformation threatened the authority and influence of the Catholic Church, prompting a response. 2. Council of Trent: The Catholic Church's response to the Reformation was formalized in the Council of Trent, which addressed doctrinal issues and initiated reform efforts. 3. New Religious Orders: The establishment of new religious orders, such as the Jesuits, contributed to the Counter-Reformation's missionary and educational activities. 4. Inquisition: The Catholic Church used the Inquisition to combat heresy and maintain doctrinal purity, often through coercive means. 5. Art and Architecture: The use of art and architecture, exemplified in the Baroque style, aimed to inspire faith and emotional engagement among Catholics. 6. Censorship and Control: The Catholic Church exerted control over literature and education, ensuring conformity to its doctrines and teachings. 7. Missions and Evangelization: Catholic missions played a role in expanding Catholicism in the New World, Asia, and Africa, countering the spread of Protestantism. EDUCATION IN 17TH 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES How education in ancient Europe contributed to the foundation of modern education, science and technology 1. Diminishing Church Authority: The decreasing authority of the church and the rise of science played a pivotal role in shaping modern education, emphasizing empirical observation and scientific inquiry. 2. Industrial Revolution: The onset of the industrial revolution brought technological innovations that enabled more precise and extensive scientific observations, leading to advancements in education and scientific methods. 3. Political Transformations: Events like the 1689 Bill of Rights in England and the 1789 French Revolution reshaped European social structures and education, affecting how education was administered and who had access to it. 4. Age of Reason and Progress: The Age of Reason and Progress transformed the philosophical underpinnings of education. This period gave rise to new educational content, methods, and administration, with evolving educational goals. 27 5. Sense Realism: The advent of sense realism in education marked a shift from outdated teaching methods to modern ones. It emphasized the scientific method, rigorous experimentation, and accurate data collection, promoting empiricism. 6. Universal Access: There was a growing emphasis on providing education to all citizens without discrimination, marking a significant step toward modern inclusivity in education. 7. Educational Visionaries: Influential scholars like John Locke, John Dewey, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Pestalozzi introduced new and modern ideas in education during these two centuries, further shaping the foundation of modern educational philosophy and practice. Landmarks in the development of formal Western education in Africa between 1900 and 1945 1. Early Beginnings and European Traders: Education in Africa had early beginnings along the East and West African coasts, initially influenced by Portuguese and later by Dutch, English, and Italian traders and proselytes. 2. Scramble for Africa and Missionary Activities: The "Scramble for Africa" by European colonial powers and the activities of missionaries led to the establishment of the first schools beyond the coastlines, marking the expansion of Western-style education into the interior. 3. African Resistance to Western Education: Africans initially resisted the establishment of formal Western education for various reasons, including cultural differences, skepticism about foreign influence, and concerns about the erosion of traditional values and practices. 4. World War I Effects: World War I had a significant impact on the development of education in Africa, as it disrupted existing systems, created demands for education, and highlighted the need for a more skilled labor force. 5. African Contribution and Acceptance: African societies gradually contributed to the guarded acceptance and eventual acceptance of Western education, recognizing its potential benefits for economic, social, and political advancement. 6. Phelps-Stokes Commission: The Phelps-Stokes Commission made valuable contributions to the development of education in Africa by assessing educational needs and recommending improvements, particularly in teacher training and curricula. 28 7. Racial Stratification: The education provided in Africa was often racially stratified, with different standards and opportunities for different racial or ethnic groups, leading to inequalities in access and quality. 8. Colonial Powers' Approaches: Various colonial powers adopted different approaches to education in Africa. The British pursued an adaptation model, while other colonial powers, like the French, practiced assimilation, which aimed to integrate African societies into European culture. International Donor Agencies influence on Access and quality of primary Education in Africa. 1. Era of Economic Optimism (1960s and 1970s): During this period, donor agencies supported African countries with financial aid to expand access to education. This era saw economic growth and increased investment in education, leading to improved access. 2. Era of Economic Crisis (1970s and 1980s): Economic downturns, triggered by factors like oil shocks and high expenditure on petroleum products, affected the funding available for education. This led to a decline in financial support and challenges in maintaining education quality. 3. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs): The imposition of SAPs by donor agencies in the 1980s and 1990s often included reductions in government expenditure on social sectors, including education. These austerity measures had negative consequences for access and quality. 4. Global Economic Orders: Movements like the Non-Aligned Movement and the introduction of the New International Economic Order (NIEO) through the UN aimed to address economic disparities. However, the reaction of industrialized countries led to the promotion of the World Order (WO) and challenges to African economies. 5. Economic Decline in Africa: Various factors, including natural disasters, corruption, bad governance, and undemocratic practices, contributed to economic decline and reduced government budgetary support for education. 6. Introduction of Cost Sharing/User Fees: Governments implemented policies of cost sharing and user fees, affecting vulnerable groups' access to education. This led to a decline in gross enrollment rates (GREs). 29 7. Changing Funding Dynamics: The withdrawal of industrialized countries from UNESCO funding and the World Bank's elevation as a key educational funding agency led to the promotion of neo-liberal ideology and free enterprise in education. 8. World Conferences on Education: Events like the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) in 1990 and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set targets for achieving Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2015. These global initiatives influenced education policies and funding. 9. Political Decisions for Free Primary Education: Many African countries made political decisions to provide free primary education, increasing enrollment but posing challenges to education quality. The response of Africans to formal Western education in Africa between the periods: prior to 1920 and 1920-1945 Background  Prior to 1920 no foreign systems of education were established. However, Africans had developed their own ways of training their young generation.  From mid-19th century there were intense European political and economic activities in Africa. These led to the partition of the African continent at the Berlin Conference in 1884. This partition led to:  Introduction of formal western education in Africa.  Influence on the pattern of education similar to that of the colonial powers Formal Western education in Africa. Three groups took an active part in the development of education in Africa. 1. Missionaries: European Christian missionaries established schools, especially in rural areas, aiming to spread Christianity and provide basic education. 2. Colonial Officials: Representatives of European colonial powers actively shaped education in African colonies, setting policies, regulations, and curricula to serve colonial interests. 3. Africans: African elites, including chiefs and intellectuals, collaborated with missionaries and colonial authorities in school establishment. Over time, African students, parents, and educators became involved, advocating for education and at times challenging the curriculum. 30 Response of Africans to formal western education prior to 1920 Prior to 1920, the African response to formal Western education was characterized by a range of attitudes, including: 1. Indifference: Many Africans initially showed little interest in Western education, with some communities remaining largely uninvolved or unconcerned about it. 2. Hostility: In some cases, Africans viewed Western education with suspicion or hostility, often due to concerns about cultural and religious influences from the West. 3. Apathy: There was a sense of indifference or disinterest among some African individuals or communities regarding Western education, as they might have seen little immediate value in it. 4. Curiosity: Despite the aforementioned attitudes, there were also instances of curiosity among Africans who were interested in exploring Western education and its potential benefits. 5. Religious Conversion: Missionary education was often tied to religious conversion efforts. Africans who resisted conversion were less likely to engage with missionary education. 6. Cultural Conflicts: The introduction of Western education sometimes led to cultural clashes within African societies. Elders and traditional leaders, concerned about the erosion of traditional values, occasionally opposed missionary education. Response of Africans to missionary education prior to 1920 1. Social Outcasts and Famine Victims: Initially, mission stations attracted marginalized individuals and famine victims seeking assistance and education. 2. Curiosity of Local Communities: Later, curious people from nearby communities gathered around mission stations to learn about new ideas and practices. 3. Limited Integration with Village Life: Mission stations and village life remained separate for a while, with education distinct from traditional village life. Full integration took time to develop. Opposition to missionary influence 1. Economic Impact: Missionary education focused on children and adolescents, who were essential for the economic life of villages. Communities resisted as they saw this as a disruption to their labor force. 31 2. Interference with Tribal Customs: Missionary education interfered with tribal rites and traditional instruction. It separated children from their tribal traditions and ways of life, leading to resistance. 3. Lack of Immediate Benefits: Parents did not perceive immediate advantages in sending their children to missionary schools, which hindered the acceptance of missionary education. 4. Exploitation and Land Conflicts: Some communities perceived missionaries as tools of land appropriation and exploitation, leading to strong opposition. 5. Coercion and Conflicts: Missionary efforts sometimes involved coercion or pressure to convert, which generated opposition and conflicts with local populations who valued their religious freedom. 6. Cultural Preservation: Resistance was often rooted in the desire to maintain cultural autonomy. Missionaries were seen as agents of cultural change, and some communities resisted Western cultural influence, including language and dress. Challenges faced by missionaries in attempt to provide education to Africans Language: Many missionaries faced challenges in communicating with local populations due to language differences. Teaching in a language unfamiliar to the students hindered effective learning. Traditional Beliefs: Local cultures often had deeply rooted traditional beliefs and practices that were sometimes at odds with the teachings of the missionaries. Convincing communities to adopt new religious and cultural values posed a significant challenge. Resistance from Local Authorities: Some local rulers and authorities resisted the introduction of Western education, viewing it as a threat to their traditional power structures and values. Hostility from Communities: In some cases, missionaries faced hostility from the communities they were trying to serve. This could be due to mistrust, fear, or a perceived threat to local customs. Financial Constraints: Missionaries often worked with limited financial resources, making it difficult to establish and maintain schools. Lack of funds affected the quality of education and the availability of necessary resources. Infrastructure and Supplies: Building schools and providing basic infrastructure such as books, stationery, and teaching materials in remote areas was challenging. Disease and Epidemics: Missionaries were often exposed to new and sometimes deadly diseases in Africa. This posed a threat to their health and sometimes disrupted educational efforts. 32 Geographical Challenges: The vast and diverse geography of Africa presented logistical challenges in reaching remote and isolated communities. Travel and transportation difficulties hindered the establishment of schools in certain areas. Climate and Environment: Harsh climates, extreme weather conditions, and environmental factors could impede the construction and maintenance of educational facilities. Political Climate: The political climate in the missionaries' home countries could affect their ability to operate in Africa. Changes in political leadership or policies could impact the support and resources available to missionary endeavors. Relevance of Curriculum: Designing a curriculum that was relevant to local needs and contexts while incorporating Western education principles posed a significant challenge. Patience and Persistence: Establishing a viable educational system required long-term commitment and persistence. Some missionaries faced discouragement and frustration in the face of slow progress. Response of Africans to formal western education 1920-1945 During the period from 1920 to 1945, Africans became increasingly aware of the potential benefits of formal Western education. They recognized that education could significantly impact several aspects of their lives, including: 1. Economic Betterment: Africans sought education for improved economic prospects, offering skills for better jobs. 2. Social Advancement: Education was a path to higher social status and greater community respect. 3. Political Engagement: Education empowered Africans to engage in politics and advocate for their rights. 4. Career Opportunities: Education opened doors to various careers, including professions, civil service, and entrepreneurship. 5. Community Development: Educated individuals contributed to community development by sharing knowledge and skills. Response to the demand for formal western education 1. Establishment of Independent Schools: Independent schools, often privately funded or managed by local communities, were established to provide educational opportunities beyond 33  the existing colonial or missionary schools. These schools aimed to meet the specific educational needs and preferences of local populations. 2. Setting of Local Native Council Schools: Local native councils and community leaders played a role in addressing the demand for education by establishing their own schools. These schools were often tailored to the cultural and linguistic preferences of the communities they served. 3. Expansion of Existing Schools: Some existing schools, whether run by missionaries or colonial authorities, expanded their capacity and curriculum to accommodate more students and provide a broader range of educational offerings. 4. Advocacy for Educational Access: Local leaders, parents, and educators advocated for increased access to formal education, leading to the establishment of new schools and the improvement of existing ones. 5. Collaboration with Missionaries: In some cases, communities collaborated with missionary organizations to establish and run schools that aligned with their educational objectives and cultural values. The development of education in Africa in the years 1945-1960 Factors that influenced the development of higher education in Africa, 1945-1960 were: 1. Post-World War II Impact: After World War II, there was a greater focus on education for post-war recovery and development, recognizing its vital role in reconstruction. 2. African Nationalism: The rise of African nationalist movements during this era led to a demand for educational reforms and increased access to education, shaping future leaders. 3. UNESCO Formation: The founding of UNESCO in 1945 globally promoted education, declaring it a human right and setting the stage for educational advancement in Africa. 4. Colonial Education Legacy: Many African countries inherited educational systems shaped by colonial powers, necessitating efforts to adapt and reform these systems to suit local needs. 5. International Support: International organizations and donor countries provided aid to expand educational opportunities in Africa. 6. Urbanization Impact: Urbanization trends increased the demand for education in cities and influenced the development of vocational and technical education. 7. New Educational Institutions: New institutions, such as universities and technical colleges, were established to meet the growing demand for higher education and specialized training. 34 The contribution of Africans to the development of their own education during the colonial period During the colonial period, Africans made significant contributions to the development of their own education, including: 1. Donation of Land: Africans donated land for the construction of schools, providing the physical infrastructure necessary for education. 2. Labor Contribution: Africans provided labor for building schools, contributing to the construction of educational facilities. 3. Teaching and Employment: Africans took up teaching positions and other essential roles in educational institutions, actively participating in the operation of schools. 4. Curriculum Reform: Africans rejected religious-focused education and advocated for curriculum reforms that better aligned with their cultural and societal needs. 5. Anti-Racism Efforts: Africans fought against racism in education, challenging discriminatory practices and advocating for equal educational opportunities. 6. Independent Schools: Independent African schools were established to supplement government and missionary efforts in providing education, addressing local educational needs. 7. Advocacy for Universal Education: Africans advocated for universal primary education, secular education, and equal opportunities for all, even though these goals were not immediately achieved during the colonial period. Causes of Independent School Movement In Kenya 1. Western Influence Displeasure: Africans were unhappy with the westernizing influence of missionaries on their culture and traditions. 2. Missionaries against Customs: Missionaries taught against African customs, including practices like female circumcision and polygamy. 3. Mission Education as Colonialism: Africans perceived mission education as a tool of colonialism, which influenced their resistance. 4. Rural Education Access: Mission schools were established to provide education to the predominantly rural African population. 5. Political Response to Colonialism: The formation of mission schools was a political reaction to colonial oppression, exploitation, and repression. 35 6. Promotion of African Nationalism: Mission schools provided a conducive atmosphere for the development of African nationalism. 7. Dissatisfaction with Interpretation: Africans were dissatisfied with how European missionaries interpreted religious scriptures. 8. Desire for Leadership: Africans desired leadership roles but were often excluded from them in missionary schools and churches. 9. Quality Education Aspiration: Africans disliked the perceived low quality of education and wanted academic education for upward mobility. 10. 1929 Church Ban: The Church of Scotland's 1929 ban on farming led to a boycott of mission schools in Kikuyu Central Province, demanding an end to missionary education monopoly. 11. Alien Methodology: Africans found the methodology in colonial and missionary schools to be alien, irrelevant, and boring. 12. Fight against Segregation: Africans aimed to combat segregation in education, where Europeans and Arabs had advantages, while Africans received basic education for labor in industries and settler farms. EDUCATION TRENDS SINCE INDEPENDENCE Status of Education at Independence At Kenyan independence, the education system was discriminatory, favoring Europeans, Arabs, and Asians over Africans. It focused on producing clerical and craftsman roles, while the country needed managers for vacant colonial-era positions. Kenya faced numerous challenges, including fragmentation, underdevelopment, disease, poverty, and ignorance, all of which were inherited problems affecting education. Problems inherited in education i. Inequality: The education system in Kenya suffered from significant inequalities stemming from racial discrimination, gender bias, and geographic disparities. ii. National Disunity: The segregated education system contributed to national disunity by creating divisions among different racial and ethnic groups. 36  iii. Inadequate Schools/Facilities: Insufficient schools and learning facilities resulted in a limited educational capacity, leaving many school-age children without access to education and creating a small group of educational elites. iv. Lack of Qualified Human Resources: The education system lacked qualified educators, with many Africans receiving minimal education from clerks and craftsmen. Racial distinctions existed in recruitment, training, and grading, leading to a shortage of secondary school teachers at independence, necessitating government reliance on external expertise. v. Irrelevant Curriculum: The curriculum was deemed irrelevant due to issues with content, examination systems, and overall structure. vi. Language Policy Challenges: The education system faced challenges related to language policies, which affected access and comprehension for many students. vii. Limited Finances: Inadequate funding for building schools and employing teachers resulted in a lack of resources to meet the educational needs of the population. viii. Inadequate Resources: Insufficient teaching and learning resources, such as textbooks and materials, further hindered the quality of education in Kenya. Since independence the government has addressed challenges facing education sector through commissions, committees and task process KANU Manifesto of 1963 in relation to education The ruling party KANU put education as a priority in its election manifesto in preceding independence. It committed itself to; 1. Universal Primary Education (UPE): The government committed to achieving universal primary education, ensuring that all children have access to elementary schooling. 2. Secondary School Improvement: Efforts were made to extend and enhance secondary education to provide more opportunities for students beyond primary school. 3. Alignment with National Needs: The education system aimed to produce graduates whose skills and knowledge align with the country's national needs and priorities. 4. Integration of Postgraduate Study: The government sought to incorporate more postgraduate study and advisory input into the development planning process. 37 5. Community Enlightenment: Programs were introduced to educate and enlighten the community, including adult literacy initiatives. The government also aimed to adopt science and technology to overcome barriers to economic development. 6. Reiteration of UPE: Universal Primary Education remained a principal goal, emphasizing its importance for all children. 7. Youth Preparation and Expansion: The education system aimed to prepare youth for their role in nation-building, expanding education at the O level, and responding to recommendations regarding educational policies. A commission was established to advise the government on education goals and policies. Sessional paper NO.10 of 1965 (African socialism)  Sessional paper is a policy document by the government based on commission recommendation  Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 emphasized African socialism, a system blending African values with useful techniques from various sources for positive political and economic ideals. African socialism was expected to satisfy three conditions: i) Draw from the best African traditions ii) Adapt to new and changing trends or circumstances. iii) Non alignment to any particular country or group of countries. Features of Africans socialism contained in sessional paper no.10 of 1965; a) Political Democracy: Traditional African societies valued political democracy, ensuring equal political freedom for all, regardless of economic status. The paper recommended inclusive state policy-making to safeguard minority interests and differentiated African socialism from communism, emphasizing traditional resource-sharing over a classless, stateless society. b) Mutual Social Responsibility: This concept extends the spirit of African families to the entire nation. The state has a duty to provide equal opportunities, eliminate exploitation and discrimination, and offer essential social services such as education, healthcare, and social security. 38 c) Various Forms of Ownership: Under colonialism, Kenyans lacked political equality, economic opportunities, and property rights. African socialism encouraged both state and private ownership, with a focus on preventing extreme wealth concentration at the expense of others. d) Range of Controls: To ensure property served society's mutual interests, various control measures were implemented. e) Diffusion of Ownership: This aimed to prevent the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few. f) Progressive Taxation: Implemented to achieve a fair distribution of wealth and income, ensuring equity in the society's economic structure. The sessional paper also addressed: 1. Africanization of Jobs: It focused on promoting the hiring and promotion of African citizens in both public and private sectors, seeking to increase African representation in the workforce. 2. Skilled Manpower: The paper emphasized the importance of providing adequate training and education to develop a skilled workforce to meet the country's needs. 3. Foreign Exchange: It highlighted the need to earn and manage foreign exchange effectively, likely through trade and economic policies that support a favorable balance of payments. 4. Domestic Resource Utilization: The paper emphasized the prudent and efficient utilization of domestic resources, ensuring they are effectively harnessed for national development. 5. Infrastructure Development: It discussed the need for nationalization of key infrastructure elements such as schools, hospitals, roads, water supply, and major industries. This likely entailed government ownership and management to ensure accessibility and quality services. 6. Welfare Services: The sessional paper advocated for the establishment of welfare services, suggesting a commitment to social development and the well-being of the population through various social programs and services. 39 Guidelines in relation to education Sessional paper No 10 of 1965 provided guidelines to shape education in order to achieve the following: i. To produce good citizens at the end of the seven year free education course. ii. To meet the needs of economic growth by producing the required manpower. iii. To promote national unity iv. To encourage proper use of leisure time. v. To develop curricula that would meet the government’s specified standards. vi. To produce citizens who could contribute to the development of education through self-help activities e.g. payment of taxes, school fees. Achievements of Sessional paper No. 10 of 1965 i. Education continues to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes that promote social and economic development. ii. Centralization of curriculum development at KIE took place and through this, the government controls curricula that is used in all public educational institutions below the university. iii. Citizen of Kenya continues to contribute tremendously to the development of education in various areas especially through the concept of cost sharing. iv. Education continues to promote national unity by for example, teaching Kiswahili the national language, as an examinable subject. This enables Kenyans to communicate with and understand one another. v. Education aims to meet the need for economic growth by producing economic manpower. Kenya Education Commission – Ominde report After independence in December 1963, the government appointed the Kenya education commission also referred to as Ominde Commission of 1964 with objectives that is to: i. Survey existing educational resources in Kenya ii. Advise the government on the formulation and implementation of national policies for education. 40  iii. Address problems inherited from the colonial government to make education more to the needs of the country.(main goal – Foster national unity and cohesiveness) The following are recommendations that were adopted and implemented from the Ominde report: 1. The introduction of the 7-4-2-3 system of education that is seven years in primary education four years secondary education ,two years pre-university education and three years university education 2. Each secondary school to give the minimum of 20 percent of its vacancies to students from outside its area (unity) 3. Education to foster positive aspects of culture and history such as communal sharing and cooperation. 4. English to become the medium of instruction in all schools, Kiswahili, through non- examinable should be used in primary schools to act both as a unifying force and an effective means of communication. 5. Efforts be made to ensure the trained and sufficiently skilled manpower takeover the management of the country’s affairs from the Europeans as they left the country’s affairs. 6. Teachers be posted to teach in any public institution regardless of race, creed, tribe or social affiliations. 7. Racial integration be put in place in education. 8. All schools to use a common curriculum. 9. Entry age of primary school be pegged at six years. 10. Social training, science education, training in manipulative skills and teaching good citizenship were to be given special emphasis in primary education. 11. History and geography syllabuses be revised to reflect the Kenyan situation. 12. Agriculture to be offered as part of general science in a revised syllabus and not as a separate subject. 13. Art and craft be taught for motor control and coordination. 14. Music be encouraged for its contribution to patriotism and national unity. 15. Integration of the scattered teacher training institutions to improve quality. 16. Kiswahili to be compulsory subject in secondary schools. 41  17. Institutionalization of legal framework to address early childhood and special education. 18. Guidance and counseling be established in all institutions of learning. 19. Teachers to be well remunerated. 20. Revision of the functions of the TSC 21. An ideal pupil –teacher ratio of 40:1 be effected and, where this was not possible, alternative approaches to teaching to be applied. 22. Co-curricular activities be made an integral part of the entire basic education. 23. Consolidated of laws dealing with education. A study of curriculum development in Kenya – Bessy Report. The report of 1972 looked into the problems of the curricula were being caused by the neglect of practical and creative subjects. Recommendations in the Bessy Report were as follows: 1. That the primary curriculum be broadened and intensified to produce adaptable individual capable of surviving in the society. 2. That a more rural oriented syllabus which include African folklore, social studies, science ,Agriculture ,home and community studies and crafts be introduced. 3. That the primary school curriculum be planned in three distinct but related phases lower primary(std 1-3) middle primary (std 4-5) and upper primary (std 6-7)classes. 4. That physical sciences be introduced in forms 5 and 6 to replace general science, physics and chemistry. Following the report, the existing subjects and syllabuses were reviewed under the guidance of the curriculum development centre. The national committee on educational objectives and policies – Gachathi report The Bessy report only addressed part of the curriculum reforms. The national committee on education objectives and policies also known as Gachathi report on 1976 was entrusted with the task of redefining educational objectives and policies. It has also required to formulate a specific programme of action for realizing the objectives and policies within the nation’s financial constraints. 42 Education objectives as recommended by Gachathi report. The recommendation made in Gachathi report were as follows i. That free secondary education be attained by 1980 ii. That primary school education be increased from seven to nine years.The nine years of basic education was to be followed by two years of junior secondary and four years of senior secondary education. (9-2-4 system of education) iii. That a new examination system and a new curriculum be introduced and considerable amount of teacher retraining be done. iv. That emphasis be placed on vocational, scientific and technical education &skills in the school curriculum. v. That secondary school education be geared towards the rural and informal sector by diversifying the curriculum and teaching agricultural sciences. vi. That a language policy be adopted in which the teaching of mother language would be emphasized as the medium of instruction in the lower classes std 1 to std 3, and Kiswahili be used in schools in urban settings due to their cosmopolitan nature. vii. The national centre of early childhood education (NACECE) be established to coordinate early childhood education matters at a national level and distinct centres for early childhood education (DICECE) be set up to coordinate early childhood education. viii. That the teaching of science be enhanced on through the building of more laboratories. ix. That Kiswahili as a language be made compulsory and examined at primary and secondary schools levels. x. That a center of research and study of Africa languages be established xi. That English be taught at all levels and an examinable subject xii. That Kenyatta university college be elevated to a fully-fledged university. xiii. That the education for teachers be improved and expanded. xiv. That teachers be promoted on merit to administrative status while still teaching. 43 The government accepted the recommendations of the Gachathi committee and started the work of restructuring the education system. However, the recommendations made by Gachathi report were not implemented as result of economic constraints. The presidential working party on establishment of the second university in Kenya –Mackay report 1981 Working party is a group of professionals appointed by the president to investigate on something and later give a report of recommendations. The Mackay report of 1981 was chaired by Canadian educationist, Professor Colins Mackay and technological university in the country. The commission drew a lot from the recommendations of the international labour organization (ILO) mission and the Gachathi Report in making the following recommendations  The setting up of a technically oriented university  The establishment of a college for continuing education  Adaptation of the 8-4-4 system of education.The primary education period extended from 7 years to 8 years and the A level component of education be scrapped reducing secondary education from six to 4 years.  Improvement of curriculum content giving greater orientation towards vocational and technical education.  Effort be made to reduce emphasis on examination –centre education Achievements from Mackay Report  Moi university was established in 1985 as the second university in Kenya  Kenyatta University College and Egerton – a constituent college of the University of Nairobi became full-fledged university bringing the number of public university to four.  8-4-4 was systematically introduced  Home science, agriculture woodwork, art and craft, and business education were introduced in the primary school curriculum.  Continuous assessment was made an integral part of the overall assessment of learners contributing 30 out of the 100 marks required for the final examination.  Project work was introduced in the technical and vocational subjects as part of the final certification of learners. 44 Other results of the Mackay Report that were outside its frame of reference include:  Intensifying in service teachers training programmes  Promotion of teacher’s merits  Additional primary TTCS were constructed to provide extra manpower for facilitation of the curriculum.  External degree programmes were started at the university of Nairobi  Social studies replaced Geography, History and civies in the primary school. The presidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond –Kamunge Report When the presidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond was appointed in 1988, Kenya was experiencing economic decline due to the impact of the structural adjustments programmes (SAPS) introduced by the international monetary fund(IMF) The following are recommendations that were made by Kamunge Report 1. Cost sharing for in education for rationalization of government budget on education with the tight implementation of this recommendation, the enrolment at primary level declined from 95%in 1988 to 76.7%in 1997 as indicated in national development plan for 1997- 2001. 2. The establishment of a national Advisory Council on education that would, on a continuous basis, review all aspects of national education, training policies and objectives and implementation of recommendation. 3. The establishment of a strong professional development institute. This led to the establishment of Kenya Education staff institute (KESI) Totally integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET) - Koech Commission Dr.Dary Koech was appointed to chair the commission of inquiry into the education system of Kenya in 1999.The aim of the commission was to review Kenya’s education system and recommend ways and means of enabling it to facilitate the following: i. National unity. ii. Mutual social responsibility 45  iii. Acceleration of industrial and technological development iv. The consideration and enhancement of lifelong learning and adaptation in response to changing circumstances. The following were recommendations made in Koech Report 1. Diversification of curriculum to Make it more relevant at each level of learning, Make graduate more useful to the society, Redu